Arden Press of Philadelphia

Citizenship In Philadelphia (1919)

By J. Lynn Barnard, Ph.D. and Jessie C. Evans. A. M.

Summary
This book presents practical information about the workings of the city of Philadelphia, including the public school system, waste disposal, elections, city planning, etc.

Table of Contents
Chapter 1 - Philadelphia—A Community
Chapter 3 - The Water Supply
Chapter 4 - Street Cleaning and Waste Disposal
Chapter 7 - The Lighting Of The City
Chapter 10 - City Planning
Chapter 12 - Getting A Living In Philadelphia
Chapter 13 - Charities
Chapter 14 - The Courts And Law Officers
Chapter 17 - Civil Service
Chapter 18 - Parties And Elections
Publication Details

Chapter 1 - Philadelphia—A Community

Two centuries ago Philadelphia was a small village on the edge of the Delaware, with only a few hundred inhabitants and with none of the big buildings or the paved streets or the parks and playgrounds or the libraries and museums that we see to-day.

As this little village grew larger and larger, the necessity for the people to work together to meet common wants became ever more pressing. This chapter tells how various efforts were made to satisfy these wants. No attempt is made to sketch even a brief history of Philadelphia, but only to trace its early growth along a few lines in order to illustrate the way in which this particular community developed civically from a village into a city.

One citizen will be discovered, the great Benjamin Franklin, who was so alive to civic needs, so clever in thinking out ways to meet them, and so enterprising in getting his ideas carried out, that he serves as the embodiment of civic spirit and civic achievement—as an ideal of the good citizen. As you read a brief story of his service to Philadelphia, you will understand why it is necessary for people to do things together as a community. You will see, too, how important it is for all citizens to take an interest in public affairs, to pay their share willingly, and to do some things that may be personally inconvenient in order that their community activities may be successful. Accordingly, his story will be told in some detail. And this introductory chapter will end at that point, for its purpose will have been fulfilled if the boys and girls who read it shall have gotten some idea of community growth and of the kind of citizenship that alone makes such growth possible.

The City of Penn — In an interesting pamphlet published in 1685, Penn gives us a clear picture of his new city as it emerged from the "cave-dweller" epoch. He describes it as two miles long and a mile wide, with High Street (now Market) and Broad Street each a hundred feet in breadth, and with eight streets parallel to High Street and twenty cross-streets parallel to Broad Street. And he adds that the names of these streets were "mostly taken from the things that spontaneously grow in the country, as Vine, Mulberry, Chestnut, Walnut, Strawberry, Cranberry, Plum, Hickory, Pine, Oake, Beach, Ash, Poplar, Sassafras, and the like." Many of these names are still in use, though not always applied as in Penn's time.

Thomas Holme, surveyor general of the province, who had come over in 1681 to lay out the city and locate building lots, gives us some additional information about the original plan. "In the centre of the city is a square [now Penn Square] of ten acres; at each angle are to be houses for public affairs, as a Meeting House, Assembly or State House, Market House, School House, and several other buildings for public concerns. There is also in each quarter of the city a square of eight acres to be for the like uses as the Moorfields in London." And he further informs us that all the streets except High and Broad are fifty feet in width.

The Schuylkill River did not become as important commercially as Penn had thought it would; the town grew but slowly toward the west, and so "Center Square" (now Penn Square) was too far away for a location for the "houses for public affairs." A meeting-house was finally erected near the square, Watson tells us in his "Annals of Philadelphia," but "it was so far out of town that it was not used and so fell into decay." The founders of the city built their homes mostly on Front Street, facing the Delaware; and for the first quarter-century a resident west of Seventh Street might well feel himself a suburbanite—if not a "commuter"!

The earliest footways, we are told, were of brick and gravel, or gravel only, and the streets were invariably either muddy or dusty. The first paving of roadways was apparently of pebbles, which the inhabitants often voluntarily placed in front of their premises, from the "kennel" (gutter) to the middle of the street. Not till the eighteenth century was half over was there united effort at paving, and then lotteries were made use of to pay for it. And throughout the century numerous "dirty places" were complained of by successive grand juries.

Watson assures us that for a few years after the founding of the city no public precautions were taken against fire. And the first act of the legislature with this in view strikes one as picturesque rather than effectual. House-holders were not to clean their chimneys by firing them, nor allow them to take fire, under penalty of forty shillings; each householder was to keep at hand a swab twelve to fourteen feet long, and a bucket or pail, under penalty of sixteen shillings; and, finally no one was to smoke tobacco in the streets, night or day, under penalty of one shilling. The fines collected were to buy leather buckets, ladders, and engines.

In John Russell Young's "Memorial History of Philadelphia," Vol. I, we read that education was begun in Philadelphia by the Council of the Colony on December 26, 1683. And the following quaint extract is given from the minutes of that date. "The Govr and Provll Council having taken into their Serious Consideration the great Necessity there is of a School Master for ye Instruction & Sober Education of Youth in the towne of Philadelphia, Sent for Enoch flower, an Inhabitant of the said Towne, who for twenty year past hath exercised in that care and Imployment in England to whom haveing Communicated their Minds, he Embraced it upon these following termes: to leame to read English 4s by the Quarter, to Leame to read and write 6s by ye Quarter, to leame to read, Write, and Cast accot 8s by Quarter; for Boarding a Scholler, that is to say, dyet, Washing, Lodging, & Scooling, Tenn pounds for one whole year." How could education have had a more delightful start in the City of Penn?

For the next half-century Philadelphia grew rapidly, and with this rapid growth in population there was increasing need for the town itself to look after all sorts of civic interests that could no longer be properly attended to by private citizens. Unfortunately, the town government proved unequal to the task. The legislative body, known as the "Common Council," was unbusinesslike, and there was no efficient administrative department. Precious time was wasted, and such public works as were found necessary were built extravagantly. Streets, police and fire protection, taxation, all alike suffered from lack of leadership and business ability.

Fortunate it was for Philadelphia that at the close of this period the city should have found itself possessed of a citizen of rare civic insight, who was beginning to see the need for collective action and who knew how to go about securing it. The story of this man's remarkable civic activities will perhaps best illustrate how Philadelphia came to realize itself as a "Community" and to appreciate what it meant to be a "citizen."

Franklin, the Civic Statesman — Philadelphia is to-day a proud city of a million and three-quarters of inhabitants and an area of 129 1/2 square miles. It is hard for us to realize that in the days when the great Benjamin Franklin walked its streets it was little more than a country village, where the government was weak and inefficient, and where each householder looked after his own interests and had not learned to coöperate with his neighbors for the common good. In fact, had it not been for their remarkable fellow-townsman, the citizens would have learned the community lesson later than they did. In his Autobiography, which every school boy and girl ought to read, Franklin pictures the growth of public spirit in Philadelphia, and shows how one function after another came to be regarded as a matter of common concern in which all should coöperate. Suppose we let him tell us the story so far as possible in his own delightful fashion.

"And now [about 1730] I set on foot my first project of a public nature, that for a subscription library. I drew up the proposals, got them put into form, procured fifty subscribers of forty shillings each to begin with and ten shillings a year for fifty years, the term our company was to continue. We afterwards obtained a charter, the company being increased to one hundred; this was the mother of all the North American subscription libraries, now so numerous." Thus was the present Philadelphia Library, now at Locust and Juniper Streets, with its 400,000 volumes, which, while not a part of the free library system of the city, is a valuable adjunct to it.

And now a new want manifested itself to Franklin; the town had no adequate police force and no fire department. Hear his quaint description of the situation. "The city watch was one of the first things perceived to want regulation. It was managed by the constables of the respective wards in turn; the constable warned a number of housekeepers to attend him for the night. Those who chose never to attend, paid him six shillings a year to be excused, which was supposed to be for hiring substitutes, but was, in reality, much more than was necessary for that purpose, and made the constableship a place of profit; and the constable, for a little drink, often got such ragmuffins about him as a watch, that respectable housekeepers did not chose to mix with. Walking the rounds, too, was often neglected, and most of the nights spent in tippling. . . . I proposed as a more effectual watch the hiring of proper men to serve constantly in that business; and as a more equitable way of supporting the charge, the levying of a tax that should be proportioned to the property. This proposal paved the way for the law obtained a few years after." Such was the simple beginning of a police department.

Franklin next discussed publicly the question of fires and the need of their prevention; and soon afterwards, in 1736, he organized the Union Fire Company, which lasted for over fifty years. "Our articles of agreement," he tells us, "obliged every member to keep always in good order, and fit for use, a certain number of leather buckets, with strong bags and baskets for packing and transporting of goods, which were to be brought to every fire; and we agreed to meet once a mouth and spend a social evening together, in discoursing and communicating such ideas as occurred to us upon the subject of fires, as might be useful in our conduct on such occasions." The small fines paid by members absent from these monthly meetings were used for the purchase of fire-fighting apparatus, so that Franklin came to doubt whether there was a city in the world better equipped than Philadelphia. Thus began the system of volunteer fire companies, to be succeeded in time by a paid fire department splendidly equipped and disciplined.

It is not strange that Franklin should have turned his thoughts toward the education of youth, and have become the founder of an academy in 1749, a combination of pay and free school under private control. This academy was later developed into the University of Pennsylvania; and Franklin notes with pride, in later life, that he had been continued one of its trustees for forty years.

Library, police and fire departments, University—what a list of public enterprises for one man to help originate! But still his civic spirit and keen discernment of civic needs spurred him on to further accomplishment. A close friend of his, a physician, had tried in vain to start a hospital for "poor sick persons, whether inhabitants of the province or strangers." But not until the influential Franklin lent the project his aid was the hospital financed and incorporated.

Soon after this he determined to see what could be done about the streets in the way of paving, cleaning, and lighting. Franklin complains in his Autobiography that "in wet weather the wheels of heavy carriages plough'd them [the streets] into a quagmire, so that it was difficult to cross them; and in dry weather the dust was offensive." And he goes on to tell us: "I had liv'd near what was called the Jersey Market, and saw with pain the inhabitants wading in mud while purchasing their provisions. A strip of ground down the middle of that market was at length pav'd with brick, so that, being once in the market, they had firm footing, but were often over shoes in dirt to get there. By talking and writing on the subject, I was at length instrumental in getting the street pav'd with stone between the market and the brick'd foot-pavement, that was on each side next the houses. This, for some time, gave an easy access to the market dry-shod; but, the rest of the street not being pav'd, whenever a carriage came out of the mud upon this pavement, it shook off and left its dirt upon it, and it was soon cover'd with mire, which was not remov'd, the city as yet having no scavengers." This is what Franklin did about it.

"After some inquiry, I found a poor, industrious man, who was willing to undertake keeping the pavement clean, by sweeping it twice a week, carrying off the dirt from before all the neighbors' doors, for the sum of sixpence per month, to be paid by each house." Thereupon Franklin wrote and printed a paper setting forth the advantages that would accrue to householder and storekeeper alike from keeping the streets clean, and followed this up with a successful house-to-house canvass. "All the inhabitants of the city were delighted with the cleanliness of the pavement that surrounded the market, it being a convenience to all, and this raised a general desire to have all the streets pav'd, and made the people more willing to submit to a tax for that purpose."

Later Franklin drew up a bill for paving the city, and introduced it in the Assembly. This was passed, "with an additional provision for lighting as well as paving the streets, which was a great improvement." To another citizen of Philadelphia Franklin gives credit for the lighting idea, reserving for himself only the credit of substituting ventilated four-sided lamps that would not smoke for the London type of globe lamp that would not do much of anything else. These new lamps "continued bright till morning, and an accidental stroke would generally break but a single pane, easily repaired."

While in England Franklin suggested to a friend of his a simple method of sweeping the London streets, and one phase of that plan will bear repetition for Philadelphia's benefit now. It was simply this, that the streets should be swept "before the shops and windows of houses are usually opened, when the scavengers, with close-covered carts, shall also carry it all away." If alive to-day, Franklin would be insisting on the use of vacuum cleaners and air-tight carts, or else underground chutes into which all debris should be driven and by which it would be carried to the dumping grounds.

Oh, for a Franklin as Efficiency Engineer in each city of this land of ours! Safety, health, education, communication, public works—all the functions of a modem municipality were foreseen and foreshadowed by this one man. Always a generation or more in advance of his times, this many-sided citizen embodied in his own life the growth of Philadelphia as it took on one civic function after another, until it emerged as the largest and finest city in the American colonies.

Chapter 3 - The Water Supply

A long time ago, when Philadelphia was a small town, every family had to depend upon a well for water. Pictures still exist showing pumps standing in Market and Chestnut Streets. It was very inconvenient. as we may imagine, to have to go into the yard or street and fill a heavy pail every time that one had use for water. Besides the inconvenience, when the town grew into a city, well water became dangerous to health. This was because the presence of so many people caused a large amount of waste water, and as this water passed into the ground it made the well water impure. Impure water is one of the chief causes of disease, especially of typhoid fever Soon after the Revolution the problem of supplying the people with sufficient pure water to meet the ever increasing demands began to trouble the city officers.

Our first city water system consisted of a pumping station which pumped water from the Schuylkill River to a reservoir on the present site of the City Hall. Philadelphia's next water works were in Fairmount Park, near the Green Street entrance. The old buildings with their rows of gray columns are still standing on the edge of the river. The city now maintains an aquarium there. The districts outside of the original city were served by separate plants, some built by the district governments, some by private companies. After the consolidation of the city, in 1854, Philadelphia came into possession of the water works which were publicly owned and later the city purchased from the companies the private plants. When the filtration system was started in 1900, the city had several pumping stations, some on the Schuylkill, and some on the Delaware.
Need of Filtration — As Philadelphia grew, other towns above us on the two rivers were growing and sending larger and larger amounts of sewage and factory waste into the rivers from which we drew our water. If we look at the map of Pennsylvania we shall see that Burlington, Bristol, and Trenton are all above us on the Delaware, while Norristown, Bridgeport, Pottstown, Phoenixville, and Reading are above us on the Schuylkill. Of course some of the filth from those towns and cities sinks to the bottom of the river or is purified by the action of the air, but enough remains to make the water unpleasant and unsafe. Even a portion of our own sewage backs up the rivers to the place where we draw our water.

The subject of purifying Philadelphia's water supply had been under consideration since 1858, but it was not until 1899 that any agreement was reached. During the last twenty years of the nineteenth century the situation had been very serious. Philadelphia had the unenviable reputation of having a higher death rate from typhoid fever than any other large city in the United States. The water was often so filthy that a coating of mud would settle in the bottom of a basin or bath tub. Those who could afford to do so always bought their drinking water by the bottle from water dealers, who throve on the city's distress. The poor either boiled the muddy water or ran the risk of dying of typhoid fever. Acting on the recommendations of a committee which had studied the problem of water supply, Councils in January, 1900, authorized the construction of filtration plants within the city limits. Down to the present time more than $67,000,000 have been spent on this work.

The Filtration System — It took nine years to complete our five filtration plants, but as each one was finished the effect upon the death rate from typhoid fever was noted at once. The rates for the city as a whole during the years before and after the introduction of filtered water are sufficient proof of the value of the system.

The fluctuations were partly due to other causes, but the general decrease of the rate is clearly due to the improvement of the water.

These five filtration plants clean more than 300,000,000 gallons of water every day. If you can imagine a huge water tank made big enough to contain City Hall, tower and all, that would represent the amount of water filtered in sixty-seven hours, or less than three days. More important than the amount of water is the fact that it is clear and clean and contains a very small number of harmful bacteria. It is only after a severe storm which has stirred up the rivers that we are troubled with cloudy water. At the laboratories of the Bureau of Water, expert chemists test the water every day to see that it is good. To clean so much water in a day is a great task, and it is very interesting to see how the work is done. If we look at the little map of the filtration system we shall see that we have four plants on the Schuylkill River called the Upper Roxborough, Lower Roxborough, Belmont, and Queen Lane filtration plants. Each one is located on the high land above the river and is supplied with water by a pumping station on the bank below. The first two are fed by the same pumping station. The two Roxborough plants furnish water to Roxborough, Manayunk, Germantown, and Chestnut Hill; the Belmont plant supplies West Philadelphia, and the Queen Lane plant supplies Tioga and the surrounding districts. All of these together produce only one-third of the water for Philadelphia. The main part of Philadelphia receives its water from the gigantic Torresdale filtration plant on the Delaware River to the north, the largest one of its kind in the world. This plant alone furnishes our city with as much water as is supplied to the entire city of London.

The Torresdale Plant — Let us pay a visit to Torresdale and see how the work is done. As we approach the river we see a group of yellow brick buildings with tall chimneys close to the bank, and next to them a large green field dotted over with little brick houses set in even rows. The buildings are the offices and engine rooms and the little houses are the entrances to the sand filter beds, of which there are sixty-five. Let us first go down to the river bank to see where the water comes from. Half a mile up the river is a great reservoir which is called the "sedimentation basin," because the water is allowed to stand there to settle. It is on a level with the river and the dirty water flows into the sedimentation basin through a screen. While the water stands, most of the mud sinks to the bottom of the basin. The somewhat clearer water is drawn off from the top of the basin, after it has stood for twelve hours, and is pumped up the hill to the filter beds. In the large building on the river's edge are the great engines which do this work.

The water is passed on through a conduit eleven feet in diameter to buildings called "preliminary filters," where it goes through tanks containing gravel and sand. There are one hundred and twenty of these filters. The filters strain off still more of the mud. From this the pipes carry the water to one of the many "slow sand filters," where the final clearing is done. These filters are like vaulted cellars, built under the ground, and having for their entrances the little yellow brick houses which we saw as we approached the place. At the bottom of these filters is a layer of broken stone covered with gravel, and on top of the gravel a thick layer of fine brown sand. The water from the preliminary filter is allowed to run in slowly and sink down through the layers of sand, gravel, and broken stone until it passes out through pipes at the bottom. It must go slowly, so that all of the dirt and most of the bacteria may be removed. The pipes from the slow filters run to "the clear water basin," where the water is kept under cover until it passes out to the homes of the people.

The Torresdale plant, unlike the others, has two pumping stations. This is made necessary by the fact that the filter beds are near the level of the river. After the water has been filtered it has to be pumped up to a higher level, so that it will flow into the buildings of the city. The pumping station for the filtered water is on the river bank a short distance below at Lardner's Point.

The district served by the Torresdale plant has the Oak Lane reservoir at Fifth Street and Chelten Avenue for a reserve supply. The amount of water used is irregular, and sometimes water is needed faster then the pumps supply it. In case of extra need, 70,000,000 gallons stored there may be drawn upon.

The removal of the bacteria from the water is hard to understand. We know that bacteria are very small—so small that we can see them only through a very strong microscope—and that some of them are very dangerous, causing diseases like typhoid fever. Passing the water through the sand could not strain out the bacteria as it does the particles of mud, because the bacteria are too small. What is it then that happens in the filter to remove them from the water? It has been discovered that a layer of good bacteria forms on the surface of the sand like a coating of jelly, after the filter has been running for two or three days. These good bacteria kill the bad ones as they come through and so purify the water from disease germs. The action of the good bacteria is what makes the sand filter so successful in reducing the danger from typhoid and other diseases.

High Service Stations — Certain portions of the city are so high above the filtration plants that the ordinary water service will not reach them. To meet this need there are four "high service stations," which pump filtered water into standpipes, thus securing enough elevation to supply these districts. The George's Hill Station serves Overbrook, the Wentz Farm Station serves Frankford, and the Mt. Airy and Roxborough Stations serve the districts of the same name.

A Great Industrial Plant — As it stands to-day, Philadelphia's water system represents an investment by the city of more than $67,000,000. In addition to being owned by the city, this valuable industrial plant is operated by the city. It is an example of efficient and successful "municipal ownership and operation" of a public utility. The operation of this great plant necessitates the steady employment of more than 2,000 men, the payment of more than $1,300,000 a year for salaries and wages, and the payment of about $1,000,000 a year for other expenses, exclusive of interest on borrowed money. The branch of the city government which operates and manages the water system is known as the Bureau of Water, one of the several bureaus comprising the Department of Public Works; and the official responsible for the operation and management of the system is known as the Chief of the Bureau of Water and is subordinate to the Director of the Department of Public Works, who is appointed by the Mayor.

In accordance with the most approved ideas concerning the operation of a business enterprise by a government, the aim has been to make the water system self-supporting—that is, to collect from the consumers of the water at least enough money to cover the expense of collecting, purifying, and distributing the water, and to cover interest on such of the cost of the system as has not been paid for. Notwithstanding the smallness of the charges which the city makes for the water which it supplies, and notwithstanding the great wastage of water by the water consumers, Philadelphia's water system supports itself and pays a profit.

At present the city charges for its water on several plans. Some consumers are charged flat rates—that is, they are charged so much per year according to the number and kinds of water-consuming fixtures on their premises, upon the uses to which the water is put, or upon the size of the connection to the water main. Others are charged meter rates—that is, they are charged according to the quantity of water delivered to their premises through water meters, the rates being graded according to the sizes of the connections to the water mains or according to the uses to which the water is put.

Owing to the great wastage of water by many of those who pay flat rates—the annual water bill being the same no matter how much water they use or waste—and because charging for water according to the quantity which a consumer draws through his premises is fairest to all, the city is requiring new consumers and certain classes of old consumers to adopt the meter plan and is encouraging others to do likewise, with the result that the flat rate plans are rapidly being superseded by the meter plan.

Fire Protection —There is a close connection between the water supply and our protection from fire. The firemen are dependent upon the Bureau of Water to give them enough water to fight fires. Most of the fireplugs which you see on the streets are connected with the regular mains of filtered water. In the portion of the city near the Delaware River, where the largest mills and warehouses are located, there is a special water supply called the "high-pressure system." A pumping station at Race Street and Delaware Avenue pumps water directly from the river. Another at Seventh Street and Lehigh Avenue takes it from the old Kensington reservoir, filled from the Torresdale filtration plant. The pumps are worked by high-power gas engines which can be started very quickly and which send great streams of water with tremendous force. There are special fireplugs in these districts for the high-pressure system. Hose connected with these will send streams of water into the tenth story of a building. (See chapter on fire fighting and fire prevention.)

Water Waste —The great problem which is facing the Bureau of Water continually is how to provide enough water to meet the demands of the city. The population and industries are both growing very rapidly. Recently the situation became so acute that the pressure was insufficient in several sections of the city. Additional supplies are especially needed in South Philadelphia. This lack of water was made one of the excuses for the dirty condition of the streets, since the chief of the water bureau was obliged to forbid, at times, the use of water for flushing the streets. There was fear of an insufficient supply for fire fighting.

The daily output of more than 300,000,000 gallons would seem to be enough when you consider that it means a per capita supply of almost 200 gallons. New York's per capita supply is 103 gallons, Boston's 157, and Cleveland's 104.

The Chief of the Bureau of Water claims that our shortage is partly due to waste. An investigation undertaken by the bureau in 1913 showed that there were leaking faucets and hydrants everywhere. One institution alone was found to be wasting 1,000,000 gallons every day. It seems rather foolish for the city to spend so much money to clean water which runs right into the sewers. It is not good business.

What remedies are proposed to prevent our having to spend more millions for more filtration plants to keep up with the increasing demands for water? The first and simplest thing would be to oblige the owner of every house and business building to install a meter and pay by the gallon for the water he uses. That would make them more economical. A beginning has been made, as stated above, by requiring certain classes of consumers to install meters. Many householders and business men have done so voluntarily and thus helped to save water. A second remedy would be to educate the people of Philadelphia to realize that it is their money which is being wasted when they let the faucets and hydrants run, and get everybody to help to save the property of the whole community. This is one of the matters in which children can help their city directly.

Water Supply and Sewage —The more than 300,000,000 gallons per day pumped and filtered flows through the pipes and faucets of the city's buildings, out again through the waste pipes and sewers, and back into the rivers. The volume of sewage is increased by the rain which falls in the streets and runs off through the sewer inlets at the corners. To dispose of this enormous quantity of dirty water makes another problem for the community.

The waste pipes under the street are made of terra cotta, brick, or concrete, and empty into large sewers. The volume of waste is so great that these sewers are often like tunnels, and are so large that men can walk through some of them standing erect. One of the newest, the Wingohocking Creek sewer, is nineteen feet in diameter, large enough to drive a horse and wagon through. The main sewers empty into either Frankford Creek, the Delaware, or the Schuylkill River. Their mouths are supposed to be far enough down the river so as not to interfere with the intake of water for the city's water works. As a matter of fact, a portion of our sewage does back up so far as to affect the source of our water supply. The planning and locating of the sewers are done by the Bureau of Surveys, of the Department of Public Works, but they are built by contractors under direction and inspection by that bureau.

When towns were small and population was scanty, there was little objection to sending the sewage into the rivers. The action of the friendly bacteria soon purified it. But the more dense the population, the more dangerous it becomes. We have to clean from the river water the refuse of the towns above us on the river banks, as has been explained. We in turn pollute the river which flows on down to Chester and Wilmington.

The Chief of the Bureau of Surveys estimated in 1915 that 400,000,000 gallons of sewage daily are emptied into the Delaware River. The river water carries not only filth but disease germs. It menaces health, is unpleasant to look at and to smell, and deposits slime upon the bottom, thus helping to fill up the channel. The United States Government and the city government are constantly working to keep the channel clear of mud so that large sea-going vessels may not have difficulty in coming up to the wharves of Philadelphia. It is poor policy to add to the mud which the government must remove. In view of these facts, the State Legislature in 1905 passed a law forbidding any town or city to discharge sewage into the watercourses of the state. Every city must file plans for sewers and sewage disposal with the Department of Health at Harrisburg.

Philadelphia already has one such sewage disposal plant on the Pennypack Creek sewer in the northeastern part of the city, which cares for 2,000,000 gallons daily and so prevents pollution of the Delaware near the Torresdale water works. At the Pennypack Creek plant the process is somewhat like the filtration of the city's water described above. The sewage first enters large sedimentation tanks. It remains there for two hours while the solid materials are settling to the bottom The water then flows off from the tanks, and is passed through a "trickling filter," where it falls as a spray on broken stone thus being aerated and subjected to the action of friendly bacteria Then it is disinfected to destroy disease germs and returned to the river. The superintendent of the plant claims that the water is perfectly clean. The solids are taken from the tanks, dried and used for fertilizers.

The Bureau of Surveys conducted a study of the problem for over ten years, examining the methods in use in cities abroad as well as in the United States. In 1915 they made a report to Councils which has been approved by the state and is Philadelphia's plan for the future.

The report advocated the construction of three great sewage disposal plants: one on the Delaware River below Bridesburg, one on the Delaware in the lower part of the city near Greenwich Point, the third in the southern part of West Philadelphia near the mouth of the Schuylkill River on the "Cannon Ball Farm.'' The plants were to be completed by 1950 and the estimated cost by that time was $34,000,000. That cost includes not only construction of the plants but purchase of the sites and the building of very large collecting sewers to conduct the sewage to the disposal centers. It will cost $500,000 a year to maintain the system after it is built.

Citizens have it in their power to decrease this expense in the same way that they may decrease the cost of filtration of water. Philadelphia wastes much of its water and this waste not only adds to the cost of the Bureau of Water but increases the sewage to be disposed of.

Conclusion —We have seen how the people of Philadelphia have secured a water supply from the days of wells and pumps to the present time, yet the first problem is still with us: how to secure enough water for the rapidly growing city. Not only is the population increasing but the uses for water are more every year. One great manufacturing plant to-day demands more than the whole city in the days of the first water works in Center Square. Modern standards of living demand water in every house and at least one bathroom to a family. Modern methods of street cleaning require that the streets should be flushed at least once a week. Let us hope that the problem of a sufficient water supply will soon be solved.

Chapter 4 - Street Cleaning and Waste Disposal

The chapter on health shows how pure air is necessary to preserve the health of the community. Yet we have often walked along the street on a windy day when dust, swept up by the wind and whirled along in clouds, filled our eyes, nose, and mouth. The more we had studied about health matters the less we liked this. We knew that the bacteria and microbes which carry disease were mixed in with that dust; each particle was a "germ airplane."

Who Litters the Streets? —Why do we have so much dirt in the streets? A walk along Broad Street will tell us. As we approach Arch Street we find the workmen busy paving it with wooden blocks. Piles of sand are heaped beside be street for use in the work. The wind catches the sand and spreads a little of it on the asphalted surface of the street. At Cherry Street we see a new automobile palace in process of erection; bricks are piled beside the street, bags of cement, packing boxes with excelsior cropping out of them, and ashes and sand for making a pavement are scattered around.

In the next block a boy is sweeping out a shop. He sweeps the dirt across the sidewalk and deposits dust, shavings, and papers in the gutter for the wind to scatter. A contractor's wagon passes with a load of sand. The driver has filled it to the top, and as it jolts along it leaves a fine trail of sand behind it.

As we pass Mount Vernon Street a gust of wind brings out pieces of newspaper, wall paper, and a rag or two. Where does it come from? It is the day for collection of ashes and rubbish. In front of each house is a motley collection of baskets, boxes, and cans. Some are good strong galvanized iron cans, others are frail peach baskets lined with newspapers and leaking ashes at every opening.

On one corner there is a very shabby man with some big bags. He pokes a long hook into bundles and tears them all to pieces trying to find some salable rubbish. He puts the scraps into his bag and moves on to tear up the contents of another box or can.

A little later the city rubbish and ash collectors pass. The rubbish collectors have large wagons with high sides so that they may carry a large amount of material which is light and bulky. They take the contents of the boxes and bundles but leave the scattered fragments behind.

On certain days, also, the garbage pails will be out waiting for the collectors. Unless the cans are covered, the neighborhood dogs go through the contents and scatter them on the pavement. The garbage collectors are likely to be careless and leave remnants of food on the sidewalk. If the wagons are overfilled they add to the general dirt of the street as they pass along. Every residence street, unless the houses open at the rear on a small street or alley, is mussed up for one or two days in the week by setting out waste for collection. If by accident the collectors do not come on the appointed day, the number of days of dirt and muss is increased.

The Laws —It is easy to see where all the dirt which we notice in the street comes from. One naturally asks why things are not better done. As a matter of fact, the city and state governments have been concerned about these matters and have passed laws and ordinances to prevent the littering of the streets. In 1917 the city government issued a card of warning to citizens, giving the brief statement of the laws as follows:

Penalty: For each violation of this law, five (5) dollars.

Use of Proper Ash, Rubbish, and Garbage Receptacles
Act of State Assembly, April 11, 1915: Requires that "the occupant or tenant of every dwelling, and of each apartment in a two-family house, the lessee or conductor of every rooming house, and the conductor of every tenement-house, shall provide for each apartment under his supervision a suitable non-absorbent, non-leakable, covered receptacle for garbage, and a receptacle of approved kind for ashes. All occupants or tenants of buildings of the foregoing classes shall securely bundle all rubbish, waste paper and like refuse in such manner as to prevent it from causing a nuisance upon the property or upon the street when the collectors are taking it away."

Under the authority of this law, the Resolution of the City Board of Health, May 19, 1916: Requires that

Ash Receptacles : Shall be substantial, tight containers, preferably of metal, and should not have a capacity of over 5 cubic feet; and they should not be filled higher than 3 inches below the top of the receptacles.
Rubbish, Waste Paper and Like Refuse: Shall be securely bundled or placed in tight receptacles in such a manner as to prevent them from causing a nuisance upon the property or upon the street.
Garbage Receptacles : Shall be of metal, tightly made, and shall be covered with close-fitting covers.

Penalty: For the first violation of this law, five (5) to fifty (50) dollars. For the second violation of this law, twenty-five (25) to two hundred (200) dollars or sixty (60) days or less imprisonment or both.

Act of State Assembly, April 20, 1905: Forbids any person or persons, "to interfere with, scatter or disturb the contents of any receptacle or receptacles containing ashes, garbage, household waste, or rubbish, which shall be placed on any street or sidewalk for the collection of the contents thereof."

Penalty: For each violation of this law, ten (10) dollars.

Penalty: For each violation of this law, twenty (20) dollars.

Penalty: For each violation of this law, ten (10) dollars.

Penalty: For each violation of this law, twenty (20) dollars.

Penalty: For each violation of this law, twenty (20) dollars.

In addition to these requirements, anyone who wishes to put bricks, sand, or other building materials in the streets must secure a permit from the Bureau of Highways. For this privilege a charge is made. The bureau has been very generous with its permits, granting 12,000 in the year 1917 alone. Building material is piled along some streets for weeks at a time. Recently an ordinance has been passed requiring the applicant for a permit to pay according to the space used and the length of time the material is left in the street. This will undoubtedly bring about great improvement.

The reason for most of these regulations is plain. It may not be so clear, however, why the different kinds of waste material must be put into separate receptacles. Garbage must be kept by itself because the contractor who removes it takes it to a reduction plant to be made into oils and fertilizer. The ashes are needed to fill in lowlands and marshes. For such a purpose clean ashes are preferable. The rubbish is taken to separate dumps. At the dumps an effort has been made to have the rubbish sorted and various articles picked out—such as old felt hats, rubber, iron, and tin cans, which have a value because they can be sold; but in Philadelphia, at present, this is left to scavengers.

Why the Laws Are Not Obeyed —It is perfectly evident that our streets would be kept clean if the laws were obeyed. Some people do not care; others make money by obstructing the streets. Our policemen can easily discover most of the offenders, and our courts can punish them, but public opinion would not support the enforcement of the law. A writer in the Public Ledger, November 5, 1916, said that in New York in one year 5,951 people were arrested for littering the streets, and of these 4,759 were fined or imprisoned. Hardly any arrests are made in Philadelphia. We shall have clean streets as soon as we insist that the laws shall be obeyed.

Waste Disposal — Instead of dumping the ashes and rubbish in low places, some cities have plants where everything that can be burned is used as fuel to furnish power for lighting the city. Minneapolis lights and heats a public hospital and the workhouse building by the burning of its refuse, and in addition lights over thirty-one miles of streets. Several other cities operate such plants. The power derived does not entirely pay the cost of disposal of the waste but reduces it considerably. The cost of running the Minneapolis plant is $29,000 and the income received from it is $12,000. Philadelphia paid in 1916, $867,000 for the disposal of ashes, rubbish, and garbage. Even a portion of that would be worth saving.

Most of the garbage is hauled to the Schuylkill River, and, dumped into barges which carry it down to the plant of the reduction company. A visit to this plant would show a large group of buildings close to the river bank. At the water's edge is one of the barges from up the river. The unpleasant mass is being unloaded by a steam shovel that reaches down into the boat, seizes a ton or two at one bite and lifts it over the dock above a great funnel, where it drops the load. Apple peelings, bread, corn husks, meat scraps, and all the rest pass down the funnel into a moving trough which carries the mass into the upper stories of the building. As it moves upward boys pick out tin cans, bottles, and other objects which should not be put into garbage pails.

Climbing to the third story of the building, we see the next step in the process. There we find ourselves at the top of a row of enormous cylindrical iron tanks, two stories high and each of a capacity of several hundred gallons. From the moving trough of garbage each tank is filled, and the covers are then clamped down. Steam is turned on through pipes opening into the tanks, and the garbage is cooked from five to eight hours until it is reduced to a paste.

Down again we go to the first floor to see where the tanks are emptied. Through a funnel-shaped opening the cooked mass passes into horizontal cylinders where a piston-like arrangement presses out grease and liquid. The grease is refined by a gasoline process until it is clear and pure. In its different stages it is sold for commercial purposes. The presses are opened and the pressed material or "tankage" is carried on moving platforms to ovens where it is dried until it becomes a scorched brown powder. Boatloads of this material are sent South to be used as the basis of fertilizer.

The cost to the city of getting its garbage removed has steadily grown, from about $275,000 in 1914 to nearly $725,000 in 1919. Why this remarkable increase should have occurred even with the rise in wages and other expenses of production, is hard to see when the products of the garbage disposal process have steadily increased in value. The work must be done well, for decaying garbage in a city is a menace to health. Tons of it accumulate every day, and if left it becomes a source of unpleasant odors, especially in the summer time, and is a breeding place for flies, which spread disease. The question which Philadelphians should consider is whether the work is being done economically and efficiently.

There are several reasons for the high cost of garbage removal here. Prior to the revision of the city charter in 1919, the law required that a contract for removing and disposing of the garbage for one year should be awarded to the lowest bidder. In Philadelphia there was but one garbage disposal plant, therefore only one bidder, because outside contractors would not consider it worth while to build a plant for a one-year term. Sometimes, as in the fall of 1917, the bid was refused because the Director of Public Works thought it was too high. When he did this, he ran the risk of having no one to remove the garbage, but usually the company anticipated this and was able to make a small reduction and get the contract.

The new charter has provided a remedy for this bad state of affairs. Section 5 of Article XX of the charter bill reads: "After the 31st day of December, 1920, the repair and cleaning of the streets, the collection of ashes, waste, rubbish and garbage within the limits of the city and the disposal of street sweepings, ashes, waste, rubbish and garbage shall be done directly by the city." But there is a provision "that any such work may be done by contract when authorized by the Council by a vote of a majority of all the members, with the approval of the Mayor." The time-limit has been removed and the city may contract any work for any length of time, but may end any contract after four years. The city is given the power to lease or construct plants to be used in connection with any of the purposes mentioned in the above section.

Experiments are being made in various cities with public ownership of plants for the disposal of garbage. It is likely that honest and efficient business management will find a way to save a considerable portion of the half million dollars now paid for this service. It is clear that the city might save the profit now made by the contractor and the value of the by-products derived from the garbage.

Street Cleaning —It is evident that much of the dirt which collects in the streets could be prevented. The removal of the dirt is one of the largest items of expense in the city's accounts for the year.

Let us go back to Broad and Mount Vernon Streets, where we watched the collectors of ashes and rubbish at work. Mount Vernon Street is paved with asphalt at this point, so we shall observe the method of cleaning which is adapted to smooth pavements. First in order comes a sprinkler wetting down the dust. It is followed by a squeegee. This street-cleaning machine has a roller covered with projecting bands or "fins" of rubber. The principle is the same as that of the rubber squeegees which are used in cleaning windows. As the horses draw it, the roller turns, and the dirt is scraped from the smooth surface of the street. The roller is placed diagonally between the wheels so that as it turns and scrapes the surface, the dirt is thrown to one side of the street. After the squeegee comes a "gang" of men in white uniforms with brooms to sweep into piles the dirt left by the squeegee. Then follow men in brown uniforms, with shovels and wagons, who take up the piles. It is important that the whole group shall work together, because if the refuse is left in the street it will be scattered by the wind and traffic. The contract allows no longer than an hour before the dirt is removed.

Now if we go around into Sixteenth Street we shall find the gang cleaning by the method required for a street paved with granite blocks. The surface is rough, so the squeegee could not clean the mud out of the cracks. It is therefore replaced by a machine broom which has a roller like the squeegee, but the rubber fins on it are replaced by brushes made from splints of wood.

While we are watching, a man in a gray uniform arrives on a bicycle and gives some orders to the workers. He is the gang superintendent whose duty it is to see that the work is done properly. Each workman and each wagon and piece of apparatus has a number, so that an inspector can report any delinquency or any need of repairs. Citizens, also, in reporting any failure in duty on the part of the street-cleaning force should always give the number of the district and the number of the man who is criticized, as well as the day and hour if possible.

If we were watching a street-cleaning gang nearer the center of the city we should see different methods used. Some gangs are furnished with high-pressure motor flushers. These are like large motor sprinklers which give enough force to the water to flush the dirt from the streets into the gutters. They are generally followed by men who sweep the water into the sewers. Many narrow streets and alleys are cleaned by men with hand brooms and hand hose. In the region from Vine Street to Washington Avenue and east of Broad Street and also on Market Street, west to the river, it is required that the machine street cleaning shall be done at night, except in winter time. The object of this is to avoid interference with the heavy traffic in the daytime and annoyance to the crowds which throng these streets.

Everywhere throughout the city between the regular cleaning times you will see the "blockman" at work. According to the specifications for 1917, his outfit should consist of a can carrier on wheels, bags or cans, a scraper, a broom, a wrench to open the water plugs, a hand watering pot, and a shovel. It is his business to sweep up the refuse as fast as it collects, put it in a bag or can, and leave it at a specified spot for the man who comes around with a dirt cart. Each man is assigned to one or more blocks. The more crowded the section; the shorter the route given to him.

For the purpose of cleaning our more than 1,700 miles of streets and roads the city is divided into nine districts The work in each district is carried on by a contractor paid by the city. No contractor is allowed to have more than two districts. The arrangement is intended to secure better work and to keep several firms in the field so that it may not become a monopoly as in the case of the garbage disposal. Ostensibly the firms bidding against each other help to keep down the price; it is quite possible for one contractor to control several firms appearing under different names and so evade the law.

The Bureau of Street Cleaning issues specifications each year, giving full details of the work to be done by the contractors. These tell which streets must be cleaned every day, every other day, every week, etc. They also state the number of men of each classification for each district, and the kinds of apparatus to be used. Another important item is a statement of the fines to be paid by the contractor for failing to live up to the specifications.

The Bureau of Street Cleaning of the Department of Public Works prepares the specifications and supervises the work. Its inspectors go throughout the city and report to district offices any violations of the specifications which they find. The work is very hard to supervise because the operations are so many and varied and so widely scattered. It has been estimated that it would require one hundred and twenty men to do it thoroughly. The city affords only thirty-five.

The method of punishment by fines for failure to keep the terms of the contract does not work very well. Occasionally the Director of the Department of Public Works deducts from the monthly payments to the contractor considerable sums of money, but the contractor often saves more money by omitting to do the work than he loses in fines.

These minute directions, the employment of inspectors and many other members of a Bureau of Street Cleaning, and the expenditure of two and one-half millions of dollars per year ought to give us clean streets. We could easily observe why the streets are littered; it is not so easy to decide why they are not cleaned. Yet it is true that the newspapers are full of complaints of the dirty streets, and one does not have to go far with open eyes to see that these complaints are well founded. The Evening Ledger said in an editorial, June 18, 1917: "The dirtiness of our streets has become a byword. Citizens take the condition for granted. If their children are stricken down by infantile paralysis or other diseases of which dirt is the carrier, they weep their tears and lay their flowers on the graves of the innocents, bewailing their evil fortune. Better might their consciences smite them and their tears beg pardon of the dead for their own negligence in having permitted the continuance of conditions which they knew, or ought to have known, were a constant invitation to death. We sympathize no more with communities which are visited by yellow fever or smallpox, for we know that only negligence permits either to get a hold. No more can sympathy be deserved by communities which in this day of scientific sanitation countenance highways of filth and accept as inevitable these breeding places and carriers of disease."

There are two ways of administering the cleaning of city streets. One is to have the city let the contract for the work to a private firm and then employ inspectors to see that the contractor does his work properly. The other way is to have the work done by employees of the city under the direction of city officials. Our city has used the first method for a long time, but the new charter directs the city to do this work after December 31, 1920, unless a majority of the Council decide to have it done by contract.

New Methods in Street Cleaning —There are certain new devices which are beginning to be seen in Philadelphia. Among these are motor-driven rubbish and ash wagons, motor squeegees and brushes, scrubbing machines, street rubbish cans, and vacuum cleaners. It has been the policy of the bureau to require in the specifications each year a larger number of motor-driven pieces of apparatus, so that the contractors might gradually replace those drawn by horses. In Cleveland it has been shown that an electric street flusher cleans a mile of street for seventy-five cents, while it costs $4.50 to do the same with a horse-drawn flusher. In 1917 the contractors began to experiment with an automatic motor cleaner; it sprinkles, brushes up the dirt, and gathers it into a receptacle all in one process. It has been claimed that such a machine can clean as much pavement in one hour as a horse-drawn sweeper in six hours.

Paving —There is a direct connection between paving and street cleaning—so direct that the two subjects are usually treated together. It is only smooth pavements which can be readily cleaned. The squeegee or the vacuum cleaner can pass quickly over them and there are no cracks to catch and hold the dirt. Wood block pavements when in good condition are about as smooth as asphalt. Streets which have very heavy traffic are paved with granite blocks, as these resist wear longest. The new granite block paving presents a fairly smooth surface, but brushes must be used to take the dust from the cracks. Where streets are of the old-fashioned rough blocks, or are out of repair, only hand sweeping is satisfactory. The dirt collects in the depressions and is hard to clean out. It is evident that good paving is economical, for the large machines cost much less to use than a gang of hand sweepers.

Removal of Snow —The greatest emergency which the Bureau of Street Cleaning has to meet is a heavy snowfall. If snow is allowed to accumulate in the streets, all transportation is delayed, workers are late to shop and factory, and the city's business is interfered with or stopped altogether. Those who stay at home suffer too, for the coal man, the milkman, the butcher, and the baker cannot make deliveries, and thus many may be actually cold and hungry with supplies only a few blocks away. The most serious of all the dangers is the danger of fire. Fire and police alarm wires may be broken by the storm and the streets so blocked by snow that repair wagons cannot reach the wires or the engines reach the fire. The hydrants too may be covered, so that precious time must be wasted in digging them out. At a fire every second counts.
Not so very long ago cities waited until a storm was well started and a blockade beginning and then suddenly became excited and sent the officials hurrying around to collect men and wagons to clear away the snow. Now there is a well-recognized method for dealing with such emergencies. In the street-cleaning contracts in Philadelphia the contractors are obliged to agree to turn their forces from their usual work to the removal of snow, and to begin as soon as the snow begins to fall. Additional contracts were made in 1916 and 1917 in advance for the removal of the snow from the central part of the city. The traction company cooperates by running trolley snowplows to keep the tracks clear. Greater speed has been secured by dumping the snow through manholes into the sewers instead of carrying it to the rivers.

There is a law requiring each householder to remove the snow from the sidewalk in front of his house to within three feet of the curb within six working hours of the time that the snow ceases falling. The observance depends largely upon the vigilance of the police, who are supposed to serve notice upon people not complying with the law.

Clean-Up Week — In 1913 the Director of the Department of Public Works and the Chief of the Bureau of Highways inaugurated the plan of an annual clean-up week. It was believed that the city contained a great deal of dirt and rubbish that was not removed by the ordinary methods, and so announcement was made that during the week from April 28th to May 3d, any quantity of rubbish would be removed free of charge by the city collectors. Clever posters were placed upon the billboards all over the city, attractive slides were shown in the moving picture houses, and circulars with pictures and rhymes were given out in the schools, distributed from house to house, and pasted on the windows of the trolley cars.

If all youngsters were as energetic as were Johnny and Mary, parents would be put to shame by their children and Philadelphia would be spick and span. William Penn was shorn of his dignity and represented as wielding a broom from his perch on City Hall tower.

The results were good. Perhaps the best was the education of the public in cleanliness. The bureau had underestimated the amount of rubbish which would be discovered, and the wagons were busy all of the following week carrying it away. In some congested sections of the city the sidewalks were almost impassable for days with the piles of all sorts of cast-off things. It was a marvel how all of the rubbish had been concealed in the houses and the cellars. It was estimated that the fire risks of the city were greatly decreased and that health conditions were improved. Because of this success, "Clean-Up Week" has been made an annual event.

Chapter 7 - The Lighting Of The City

The Beginning of Street Lighting —The lighting of the streets of Philadelphia by the city government, like so many other good things in our city, seems to have had its origin in the clever and active brain of wise Benjamin Franklin. It appears to have been largely owing to his efforts that the city passed an ordinance in 1751 "for establishing a night watch and for enlightening the city." Oil lamps were placed at regular intervals. Thus we see that it was realized then as now that lighting of streets was a quiet and certain ally to the police in securing the safety of the city by night.

By 1802 it was urged that the streets would be safer for night travel if they were lighted by gas, which was then beginning to be used in some European cities as an illuminant. There was violent opposition from many citizens to this new method of lighting, and for more than a generation fear of it was so strong that no improvement in lighting was made. In 1835, after an investigation of methods used in European cities, Councils passed an ordinance for the construction and management of the Philadelphia gas works.

The Gas Trust —In 1836 these works were completed and the public streets began to be lighted by gas. The capital to construct the works was raised by private subscription, but the ordinance provided that the city might at any time arrange to pay back the money and become the owner of the works. Select and Common Councils were each to elect six members of a board of twelve trustees to construct and manage the works and to make annual reports to Councils. In 1841 the city took over the gas works, but the trustee system was continued. So Philadelphia became one of the first of American cities to practice municipal ownership of a public utility. By this we mean that the city itself owned and operated a service which was useful to all the people.

The experiment was not successful. For many years the gas was of a very poor quality and was uncertain in its delivery. At the time in the evening when most gas was needed the pressure was so weak that some houses could not get light at all. This was due to the small size of the pipes, which were not large enough to carry the volume of gas needed. For the poor gas and poor service the people paid a very high price. As late as 1887 they paid $1.40 for a thousand cubic feet, and this was in spite of the fact that the expense of manufacturing had been much decreased in all cities by the use of new inventions. Too many men were employed. Money which was paid for gas was not used to provide larger and better pipes or to renew machinery when it grew old, but was diverted to other purposes. What was called by-products of the making of gas—that is, the left-overs, such as coke, tar, and ammonia—were not sold profitably and the money saved for the improvement of the service, but were allowed to go to favorites for small prices. All of this bad management was the fault of the people of Philadelphia, of course, because they did not keep charge of their own government and see that things were done properly. In 1885 the people did wake up, under the leadership of a group of men called the "Committee of One Hundred," and secured the passage by the Legislature of a new city charter called "the Bullitt Act." By this charter the gas works were placed under the management of the Department of Public Works, and a city ordinance was then passed creating a Bureau of Gas to take charge of the business.

The Bureau of Gas —Under the new arrangement extensive improvements were made immediately. The amount of gas produced in a day was increased, the quality of the light was much improved, and the cost was reduced to eighty-nine cents per thousand cubic feet. Over 800 unnecessary employees were discharged. But after the first burst of reform, things became gradually almost as bad as under the gas trustees. The same evils as those mentioned above appeared again.

Lease to the United Gas Improvement Company—At the end of ten years of city management the condition of the gas works was so bad that it would have required many millions of dollars to bring it back to a high standard. In September, 1897, the Mayor suddenly sent to Councils an offer from the United Gas Improvement Company to rent the gas works, which was accepted before the people fairly realized what was being done. So the gas works which belonged to the people were rented for a period of thirty years to a private company to operate for its own profit. Under the management of the company the old works were thoroughly repaired and renovated, businesslike methods were introduced, a better quality of gas was furnished, and the service was improved in every way. The experience of Philadelphia would seem to prove that a city cannot run its own gas works, but in many cities the plan has succeeded and perhaps when the thirty years are up the city may know better how to manage its affairs.

The terms of the gas lease by which the works were turned over to the U. G. I. are briefly as follows:
1. The lease was for a period of thirty years (until December 31, 1927).
2. The city was to receive $10,000 annually from the company towards the payment of the expenses of the Bureau of Gas.
3. The company agreed to supply gas of at least twenty-two candle power or to pay the city a penalty of $500 for each day it failed to do so.
4. The Chief of the Bureau of Gas (called Inspector of Meters) was to test all the gas.
5. The company agreed to supply the city, without charge, gas for the lighting of public buildings, and for all the street lamps in use at the beginning of the lease. It also agreed to supply 300 new lamps each year.
6. The price of gas was to remain at $1.00 per thousand cubic feet, but the company agreed to pay out of this 15 cents to the city until 1913, then 20 cents till 1918, then 25 cents till 1928. Thus the city was to get an increasing tax on the sale of gas.
7. The company promised to spend at least $15,000,000 in improvements before the end of the lease.
8. The city might, at the end of the first ten years, take back the gas works if it chose to do so, provided it paid for all of the improvements made by the company.
9. At the end of thirty years the works were to be returned to the city without cost.

A fuller statement of this lease may be found in the Manual of Council.

The promises made by the United Gas Improvement Company seem so fair, and its service has been so good that it is a little hard to see why some people say that the city made a great mistake in renting the gas works. The reason is that the business is very profitable, and these people would like to see the profits go to the city to be used in reducing the price to consumers.

The first ten years expired in 1907, and the city could then have taken back its property; but, alas, there was no money to pay the bill. The company tried in 1905 to get the city to extend the lease to seventy years, but this time the people were awake to the meaning of the lease and objected so strongly that the request was refused.

As was shown in the terms of the gas lease, the city is really taxing the people through the price of gas. At present everyone is paying $1.00 per thousand cubic feet of gas, but of this the company returns twenty-five cents to the city. This brings to the city a tax revenue of more than $1,000,000 every year. If the city would give up that money we might have seventy-five cent gas, and the City Council has the power to decide to do this. The trouble is that if that money were given up the people would have to be taxed in some other way to help meet the city's expenses. Some people think that another kind of tax would be better because this bears more heavily on the poorer classes of people than on the well-to-do.

Electric Lighting —In 1881 a new form of lighting was introduced, electricity, which soon began to replace gas for street lighting and then was used extensively in the homes of the people. The Philadelphia Electric Company put up the first street lights in that year and has ever since done a rapidly increasing business for the city. Here we have a case quite different from that of the gas works. A private company started the business itself and gradually secured the city for one of its biggest customers. Electric lights have proved so superior for street lighting that gas has been abandoned entirely on the larger streets. We have no long-term agreement with the electric company, but buy electricity by contract for a year, just as we do coal for heating the public buildings. The law requires that in buying anything the city must ask for bids and then give the contract to the company making the lowest bid. When bids are made for coal there are usually several companies offering to supply us. When bids are made for electricity there is always only one company bidding, the Philadelphia Electric Company. The reason can easily be found. To offer to bid, another company would have to invest millions of dollars in wires and poles and machinery. The Philadelphia Electric Company, since it has its equipment already, has a monopoly of the business in Philadelphia.

In 1913 the Director of Public Works began to investigate the prices paid for electric lights in other cities. He found that while Philadelphia was paying an average of $84 per arc light, Chicago was paying $75, Cleveland $49, Detroit $46, Toledo $45, St. Louis $49, Spokane $48. He asked the Philadelphia Electric Company to reduce its prices but it refused. In that year the State Legislature passed a law creating a Public Service Commission. This is a body of men appointed by the Governor, whose duty it is to protect the interests of the people against unjust treatment by the companies which supply light, water, telephones, and transportation. The Director appealed to the Commission to decide whether or not the electric company was charging too much for its services. At intervals for nearly two years lawyers representing the Director and the company argued before the Commission. Experts were brought from other cities to tell of the cost to produce electricity and the price charged elsewhere. In the end, the company saw that the case was going to be decided against it and agreed to adopt a lower scale of prices. By this agreement the city saves on its street lighting about $100,000 a year. Lower prices were made for all consumers, and the people of Philadelphia were saved altogether about $1,000,000 a year. The company profited too, for its business increased at the lower rate. During the war, however, the Commission granted temporary permission for an increase in some of the rates.

Gasoline Lighting —There is still a third kind of lighting in use in the city streets, and that is by gasoline. These lights are placed in back streets and alleys where there are no gas mains or electric light wires. Gasoline lights are expensive and old-fashioned. Philadelphia is behind the times in using such a light. They are now being reduced in number and it is to be hoped will soon disappear.

Cost of Lighting —In 1915 the city paid over $2,000,000 for lighting, and that does not include the gas lights which are furnished free by the U. G. I. This money went for electric lighting of the streets and public buildings to the Philadelphia Electric Company, for gasoline lights to the Welsbach Company, for extra gas lights to the U. G. I., and for gas lights to the Northern Liberties Gas Company. The last-named company was founded before the consolidation of the city, to supply light to the district north of what was then the city. Its charter of 1844 gives it the exclusive right to supply gas to the Eleventh, Twelfth, and Sixteenth Wards, but it is bound by no duties to the city such as are found in the contract with the other gas company, which is said to control it. It will be seen that our light business is a big one and rather complicated.

City Bureaus —There are many confusing things about the government of Philadelphia, some of which were simplified by the new city charter, but many remain unaltered. Nothing requires rearranging more than the care of the city's lights. Three bureaus now divide it. The Bureau of Gas, which once had full charge of the city gas works, has nothing to do but test the gas to see that the U. G. I. provides gas of a proper quality and settle disputes over bills between the company and its customers. The chief is called Chief Inspector of Meters. The Electrical Bureau has for its principal work the maintenance of the fire alarm and police telephone system, and the telephones for all the city departments; but to this it adds the supervision of the electric lighting done for the city by the Philadelphia Electric Company. The Bureau of Lighting, which by its name would seem to have all the work to do, is only concerned with the supervision of the placing of the new lights in proper places throughout the city. To make things more confusing the Bureau of Gas and the Bureau of Lighting are in the Department of Public Works, while the Electrical Bureau is a part of the Department of Public Safety. The Chief Inspector of Meters and the chiefs of the other bureaus confer about their work, but it would be so much simpler to have it done by one bureau as well as cheaper for the taxpayers of Philadelphia.

In spite of the fact that the lights are all supplied by privately owned companies there is a great deal to be done by the city bureaus. The contract of the Philadelphia Electric Company states that it is liable to pay fines for allowing the street lights to be out. The lease to the U. G. I. requires that each street light shall be equal to twenty-two standard candles in lighting power. Otherwise the company must pay a fine for each weak light. It requires a good deal of work for the light inspectors to keep track of these failures of the three lighting companies. The gas and gasoline lights must be tested according to a method prescribed by the contracts, and this requires a great deal of scientific knowledge. There is the question too of the kind of light provided. The city officers not long ago persuaded the gas company to put incandescent mantles on its lights, and to replace thousands of gasoline lights by gas lights. About the same time it was brought to the attention of the electric company that they were using an old-fashioned arc light which had been discarded by other cities. Since then powerful modern lights are being gradually installed at the company's own expense.

Lighting for Civic Beauty —City Hall is beautifully lighted at night. The ring of twenty-eight ornamental lamp-posts around the building, each bearing a cluster of twenty-eight lights, commemorates the twenty-eight districts which united with old Philadelphia to form the present city in 1854. These lamps were established in the year of the great celebration of the founding of the city (1908). Each is a monument to one of the old districts and bears its name and seal upon the base. High above the ring of lights rises the tower, shining with the reflected glow from great batteries of lights concealed at the corners of the roof. Highest of all, the statue of William Penn. shines above a circle of arc lights. On every holiday occasion or. when some convention comes to Philadelphia, the Electrical Bureau exercises its ingenuity in ornamenting the hall with great colored designs to celebrate the occasion. These are usually over the four main entrances. Great improvements have been made in recent years in the electric lighting of our main thoroughfares. The brilliancy of the lights has been increased and an ornamental type of poles adopted The finest of these new poles are those in the center of Broad Street.

Gas and Electricity in the Home —So far we have been speaking only of the public use of gas and electricity. Probably every one is much more interested in their use in the home. No woman who has used a gas stove returns willingly to a coal range. If the housekeeper is so fortunate as to have an electric vacuum cleaner she would consider it a great misfortune to have to go back to sweeping with a broom, with all its accompaniments of dust and confusion. The reduction in the prices of gas and electricity make possible all sorts of appliances to render housekeeping pleasant and easy. It seems likely that in the homes of the future coal will not be used at all. It is a nuisance from the time that the delivery wagon spills black dust over the pavement and cellar to the time when the ash man gives a coating of gray to the premises in removing the waste. If gas can be produced cheaply enough it will be much better to heat our houses and cook our food with it. At the same time the use of electric appliances is following closely behind the use of gas. The time may come when we shall do our cooking and heating, as well as our cleaning, by electricity. Both improvements are going to make our homes much pleasanter to live in.

Cheaper Gas and Electricity —At present the high prices prevent many of us from taking advantage of these comforts. So all Philadelphia is interested in the prospect of the reduction of prices. There are several ways in which this reduction may come about. Scientific men are constantly discovering new methods of manufacture which tend to make production cheaper. In the second place, the public utility companies are showing greater willingness to reduce prices because in this way they secure more business. Thirdly, the state now has a Public Service Commission which has done us good service in showing that the electric rates should be lowered and is likely to help in other matters. As a last resort, Philadelphia could do as many other cities have done and supply itself with both gas and electricity. In that case profits could be cut out and the people served at cost. Whatever the future may bring, the people of Philadelphia are going to be much interested.

Chapter 10 - City Planning

Penn's Plan —When William Penn and the Quakers first came up the Delaware Bay and river they were seeking a good site for a town. The spot where Philadelphia now stands was selected for two reasons: because it is here that the Schuylkill flows into the Delaware, and because this site is the first stretch of high ground to be found in ascending the river. The choice proved to be a very wise one. The two rivers gave the great stretch of water front which has made Philadelphia one of the foremost commercial cities of the United States; moreover, the high land gave a healthful, well-drained location.

Penn made what seemed then an ambitious plan for his little city. It was laid out to extend from South Street to Vine between the two rivers. There was to be one main street running from the Delaware to the Schuylkill. This was High, now Market, Street. Then about midway between the two rivers there was to be a north and south street at right angles to Market Street. This was Broad Street. Each was to be about one hundred feet wide. All the other streets were to be fifty feet wide and parallel to one or the other of these two. Penn planned for five little parks in the space between the two rivers. They are now Franklin, Washington, Logan, Rittenhouse, and Penn Squares. Penn Square, now occupied by the City Hall, was formerly called Center Square. He intended that Philadelphia should be a "faire greene country towne." By this he meant that there should be trees growing along the streets, yards around the houses, and parks among the blocks of dwellings.

We are grateful to our founder for the good points in his plan. He was the true idealist, desiring for his people not only a haven from persecution in this virgin land, but also a home which was satisfying in its beauty. Forest and meadow were not to be replaced by dingy and narrow streets like those of the London he knew. He would "Let brotherly love continue" amidst gardens and shaded avenues. His two broad streets are still our main thoroughfares, proving none too ample in these days of dense population. Four of his five squares remain, and are valued breathing spaces in the heart of the city.

The Faults of Penn's Plan —Few cities were so well planned as Philadelphia in early times, but we can now see three serious faults in the original scheme. William Penn mapped all streets running north and south or east and west, on the "gridiron plan," to give the city an appearance of order and regularity. The map resembles a checkerboard. The effect was ugly and monotonous. Traffic was hindered, for movement in a diagonal direction had to be accomplished by going around two sides of a triangle. The original plan of the City of Washington, which was made a century later in 1791, was quite different. Major L'Enfant, the French engineer engaged to make the designs for the new capital of our country, took the Capitol and the White House as focal points for his scheme and made a group of spacious avenues radiate from each like the spokes of a wheel. Pennsylvania Avenue connected the two centers. The intermediate streets were on the gridiron plan, but were intersected by the radial avenues. As the city grew, other centers were to be established with other diagonal streets, so that every part of the city would be connected with the rest by direct routes. Where the avenues crossed, open spaces were naturally created, which were used as small parks. The streets of Washington are very wide, and splendid settings are provided for the fine public buildings. The plan of Major L'Enfant has been in the main adhered to up to the present time, and is considered the most complete and artistic city system ever carried out. Other cities are now adopting, so far as they can, the ideas of wide diagonal avenues and park spaces, both for beauty and for convenience.

A second mistake in Penn's plan was that of making the streets too narrow for modern times, so that now traffic is impeded and only a one-way single track trolley line can be laid on most of the streets. Chestnut Street, for instance, is becoming almost impassable for vehicles. The city before long will have to go to the expense and trouble of tearing down buildings to widen some of the streets in the business section.

A third thing which proved a mistake was making the city blocks so large that as population grew and land values increased, the temptation was great to cut them up by many small streets and alleys. This was an invitation to bad housing conditions. Many people think that Philadelphia has no housing problem because we have few high tenement houses like New York. A very little observation will show that this is a false view of the situation. In the older parts of the city we find in the center of the large blocks many small houses built on the rear of the lots of the houses which front on the streets. These houses are reached only by alleys and narrow courts. There is very little light, and the air cannot circulate through. In summer time they are insufferable, and the inhabitants are obliged to sleep on the roofs or the pavements. People are crowded together, often several families in a house meant for one, under very bad sanitary conditions. Such conditions encourage disease and crime. It is the business of the planners of our city to see that they are made impossible.

Penn's original plan applied, of course, only to the little city of his day. After his time other settlements sprang up nearby, such as Germantown, Manayunk, Southwark, and Frankford. As time went on the country between these villages and Philadelphia was settled, and it became evident that a far larger city had really grown up around the City of Penn. In 1854 the Act of Consolidation was passed by the Pennsylvania Legislature which incorporated twenty-eight surrounding boroughs and districts with the city proper. This gave to the City of Philadelphia the same boundaries as the county of the same name. These outside villages had not been planned at all, and an effort tract to be made to connect the main streets of the city with those of the new districts.

In both the original city and the districts new streets were opened with no thought of lining them with trees, the yard space of the older houses was largely covered with buildings, and there were many solid blocks of houses without any land being set aside for parks. So Penn's "faire greene country towne" became an ugly crowded city.

Philadelphia's Present Plans —Philadelphia must have many things to make it a beautiful, healthful, and convenient city to live in. The work of tearing down buildings and widening streets involves so much expense and inconvenience, and it is so important that mistakes in the future development of the city should be avoided, that the changes to be made must be carefully planned as a whole. Every progressive American city at the present time has a group of experts making designs for the city's present improvement and future development. We call this work "city planning."

It was in 1909 that a group of representative citizens came together at the request of the Mayor and authorized him to appoint a committee to study all the plans then in existence for the improvement of the city. The suggestions which had been made from time to time by enthusiastic citizens were collected, and elaborate and beautiful designs were prepared by competent engineers in 1911. In 1912 the Permanent Committee on Comprehensive Plans was appointed to continue the work. Under the revised charter of 1919 the city is given the power to create by ordinance a City Planning Commission which will undertake a definite but complete job of preparing a plan for Philadelphia. It is contemplated that when this is done, and the plan has been approved by the Council, the carrying out of the plan will be vested in a division of the Bureau of Surveys of the Department of Public Works. The plans of the Permanent Committee have been changed in many respects since 1912, and so we shall consider them as they are at present.

The ideal of the committee has been "a more healthy, convenient, prosperous and beautiful Philadelphia." To secure these aims they had to consider the free and quick movement of traffic to and from the center of the city, the provision of suitable areas for business and residence, the opening of the river shores to more seagoing ships, the location of railroad terminals, more open park and plaza spaces, and artistic buildings properly situated.

1. Traffic Circuit and Radial Averages —Philadelphia's area is very large in proportion to its population, and a great part of the people spread out over its 129½ square miles want to go into the middle of the city every day. So City Hall becomes the center of many great streams of traffic. Recent years have seen an enormous increase in motor traffic, both of automobiles and of delivery trucks. The Superintendent of Police estimated in 1918 that 50,000 motor cars entered the central part of the city every day. Thus our old-fashioned narrow streets are in some places becoming so crowded as to be almost impassable.

It is fortunate that our two chief streets, Broad Street and Market Street, were made fairly wide in the beginning. Fortunately too, Philadelphia has a few radial avenues, such as Ridge, Baltimore, and Passyunk Avenues. We have these, not because they were planned, but because they were originally country roads leading out from the little city to surrounding villages. They are always crowded with wagons and automobiles, for they offer shorter cuts to many places than the regular streets.

It is planned to improve these existing avenues, open others, and join them to a central traffic circuit. This would mean the widening of four streets so as to form a large rectangle in the center of the city—Seventh, Locust, Nineteenth, and Vine Streets. With this arrangement some of the east and west traffic could be shifted from Market Street to Locust and Vine Streets, and some of the north and south traffic from Broad Street to Seventh and Nineteenth Streets. Thus the delay and crowding around City Hall would be relieved. These wide thoroughfares would connect the four central squares, Washington, Rittenhouse, Logan, and Franklin. The district enclosed in this rectangle is the natural business center of the city. It is filling rapidly with great hotels, banks, and stores. Traffic into it and out from it is bound to increase very rapidly.

Then there are to be radial avenues, branching off at the corners of the rectangle, which would shorten the time necessary to make trips from the outlying parts of the city to the center, and relieve crowding in the narrow streets. From Franklin Square we should have Ridge Avenue running across the city in a northwesterly direction, skirting the Schuylkill to Manayunk. Another radial avenue has been planned from the same point in a northeasterly direction to the Delaware. This is called the Richmond-Aramingo route. From Rittenhouse Square we should have a diagonal street leading in a southwesterly direction, if we cut through Gray's Ferry Road from South Street to Locust. Finally, from Logan Square we should have our finest diagonal street of all, the Parkway. This runs from City Hall to Fairmount Park in a northwesterly direction, and is rapidly being completed. Unlike the other radial avenues, which will be chiefly business streets, the Parkway is to be the civic center of Philadelphia, lined with trees and magnificent public buildings.

When the Parkway and its buildings are completed, we shall be able to stand at the northwest corner of City Hall and look across the open Plaza, along the Parkway to the tall trees in Logan Square. On the left will be the new Pennsylvania Railroad Station probably moved back beyond Fifteenth Street, leaving the space where it now stands as a part of the open Plaza. Then will come the Bell Telephone Building, and beyond that the Wills Hospital and the Academy of Natural Sciences. On the right will be the buildings of the United Gas Improvement Company, the Young Men's Christian Association, and possibly a new building for one of the departments of the municipal government.

If on that future day, we walk to Eighteenth Street we shall find the Parkway cut through Logan Square and the square much enlarged by the addition of land on the south. In the center of the square the driveway will divide, making a great circle about a central monument. Beyond the square the Parkway widens out from 140 to 250 feet, and from there we may look between the double rows of trees bordering the wide avenue to the great white marble Art Gallery with its pillared porches in the Greek style, crowning the hill called "Fairmount," which blocks the end of the Parkway. On the right at Logan Square we shall see the Roman Catholic Cathedral, while at Nineteenth Street will stand the magnificent Public Library. At Twenty-first Street there will probably be a large Convention Hall where national gatherings may meet, and at Twenty-third Street the new Episcopal Cathedral. On the left, beyond Logan Square, will be seen the "Palace of Justice" to house the city courts, and the new home of the Franklin Institute, one of the city's famous scientific societies. Possibly the Commercial Museum will have a place there also.

It is hoped that all of these new buildings will be of light stone or marble, in the classic style, and that they will be set at a distance from each other with trees and grass between. When the Parkway is completed it will be one of the great streets of the world.

2. Local Civic Centers —The Parkway will be the civic center for the whole city, but in a community of so large an area as ours there should be many minor centers. If in each neighborhood the branch library, the public school, the recreation center, the sub-station of the post-office, and other public buildings front on a public square and are of harmonious design, each one will show to greater advantage and the whole neighborhood will be benefited. All of these smaller public buildings which have been built in recent years are a credit to the city. The Carnegie branch libraries are all different, but each of a handsome modern type. The new school buildings, which should be next to the libraries, are so splendid that the Board of Education has sometimes been criticized as extravagant. But where could it be more fitting to set examples of beauty, spaciousness, and good taste than in these "colleges of the people" where the rising generation will have its ideals shaped? One of these new schools forms the best part of a "civic center." If, according to the new ideas of the use of the school house, it is open all the time for the use of the parents as well as the children, it becomes the logical place for neighborhood gatherings. One of the best of the civic centers which has been suggested will be located at the intersection of Passyunk Avenue, Gibson Avenue, and Sixty-eighth Street in southwest Philadelphia.

3. New Type of Street Plans —The local civic centers will be naturally developed as a result of the plans for laying out new streets now being used by the Bureau of Surveys. In the undeveloped sections of the city advantage is taken of the existing radial avenues, such as Gray's Ferry Road and Passyunk Avenue, and corresponding new radial avenues are mapped crossing the north and south streets. Where radial avenues cross each other there will be a circle or a park, which is a natural place for a civic center. (See illustrations on pages 209 and 246.)

The very long block, intersected by alleys and back streets, which has been a bad feature of the old street plans, is being avoided. The shorter block gives more large streets and consequently more light and air for the houses. Builders generally take advantage of the opportunity to put up houses of the new type, with grass-plots and porches in front and yards at the rear enclosed by open iron railings instead of the hideous high board fences once so common. A whole block of these open yards, with grass and flowers, makes a very attractive view.

All streets are wider than in the older sections. The city has a force of men constantly at work planting the residence streets with trees. The same kind of tree is planted for several blocks and all are cared for alike. If flowering trees were planted, the effect would be especially beautiful. Rochester, New York, has a famous street planted with pink magnolias. One of our suburban towns is lining its streets with white dogwood trees.

Where new areas are being developed the Bureau of Surveys sometimes adopts a plan of parked intermediate streets. Before a builder undertakes a new operation the bureau has to plan the new streets needed. The builder is then persuaded to set aside a small park space in the center of his land. The city assumes control of this and promises to give it perpetual care. The first of these to be finished was Ringgold Square.

In the center of the city, where the narrow streets have become so congested, it is very necessary that some means should be taken to widen them. This is very difficult where the buildings are already erected. Some years ago an ordinance of Councils required that when any new building was erected on Chestnut, Arch, or Walnut Street in the business section, or any building was altered, the front must be placed five feet further back than before. This results in a very ragged building line at present, but will finally end in a great improvement.

4. Bridges —The viaducts which carry the tracks of the railroads over the city streets were formerly thought a necessary evil, and only strength was considered in their construction. The recent policy of the city has been to make all bridges ornaments instead of mere obstructions to the view. One of the best of the smaller bridges is the viaduct which carries the Philadelphia and Newtown Railroad over Third Street. Our most picturesque bridge is the one which carries Walnut Lane over the valley of the Wissahickon, rising 147 feet above the bed of the stream in a single arch.

5. The Boulevards —Two fine avenues included in the comprehensive plans have already been completed. The Northeast Boulevard runs from Broad Street at Hunting Park in a northeasterly direction for seven miles, and forms part of the Lincoln Highway between Philadelphia and New York. It is a triple roadway, bordered by grass-plots and trees. Winding over the hills, it crosses two lovely little valleys, Tacony Creek Park and Pennypack Creek Park, and opens up a new region for suburban homes. Several branches of the Boulevard have been planned.

On the south, Broad Street has been widened into a boulevard running from Oregon Avenue to League Island Park. The northern entrance from Broad Street is formed by the Plaza. This is a sort of park lying between Oregon Avenue and Bigler Street and Thirteenth and Fifteenth Streets. A part of this area is enclosed by a balustrade, within which there are walks and grass-covered spaces. The Boulevard runs through the center and is here 70 feet wide. From the Plaza southward to League Island Park the Boulevard is 300 feet wide, and consists of a central driveway and two service driveways, the remaining space being used for footways and tree and lawn areas.

6. Park System —Philadelphia began an extensive park system in 1828 by starting to acquire the lands along the Schuylkill for park purposes. Beautiful Fairmount Park, the city's largest playground, is the result of this wise policy.

Up to the year 1888 Philadelphia had in all its vast area only sixteen small parks. In that year the City Parks Association was founded and began its efforts towards saving vacant tracts in districts which were being built up. In some cases land was presented by the owners, in some cases it was bought by the city for park purposes. Largely because of the work of this association, the number of small parks has now increased to over ninety. The addition of small parks is now a settled policy of the city government.

The city plan includes the increase of the number of parks on the borders of Philadelphia and their connection with each other and with Fairmount Park by wide tree-planted boulevards. Boston, Chicago, and Kansas City lead all American cities in the development of what is called a "Park System." We shall not be at all behind when our plans are carried out.

Philadelphia has many beautiful little streams running through picturesque valleys near its outer boundaries, and many of these have been set aside as parks. In West Philadelphia there is Cobb's Creek Park, and toward the northeastern part of the city there are Pennypack and Tacony Creek Parks, not to forget the beautiful Wissahickon which joins Fairmount Park. More of these valley lands should be purchased by the city in the next few years, or the real estate men will buy them, chop down the beautiful trees, and start to erect rows of brick houses. It has been calculated that it is actually cheaper for the city to buy the little valley creeks on our borders and keep them as parks than to go to the expense of filling in the land to the level of the streets around them.

7. Transportation —Boulevards, radial avenues, and traffic circuits will be great aids to motor traffic, which is assuming such importance in all modern cities but the greater number of the vast throng which pours into the center of the city every morning and out again every night travel by street car or by train. Since the comprehensive plans were first drawn up a thorough study has been made of our transportation problems, plans have been adopted, and construction started. So vital does this matter seem that a whole chapter has been devoted to the subject. (Chapter IX.)

8 Water Fronts —A study of the map of Philadelphia will show that we have a remarkably long water front. The Schuylkill is navigable for large boats only as far as the Walnut Street Bridge, but its upper course is useful for water power. The whole Delaware front is available for sea-going vessels. Few cities in the world have such an opportunity for the building of docks and wharves.

When the Committee on Comprehensive Plans made its first report, great emphasis was laid upon the development of the water front. It was recommended that the city build municipal docks and secure the rearrangement of railway lines in South Philadelphia, so as to serve better in the distribution of freight arriving at and leaving the piers.

The Committee further suggested that the project of a wide commercial avenue along the Delaware, which had been considered ever since the time of Stephen Girard, be carried out without delay. More than four miles of this has now been completed, extending from Hoyt Street on the extreme south to Fairmount Avenue. Structures along the water's edge were removed and a paved road from 100 to 250 feet wide constructed. It was odd that $500,000 of the expense came from a bequest left by Girard for the purpose in 1831. This improvement is to be continued all the way to the city limit at Poquessing Creek. The northern portion, from Tacony upwards, is to be a boulevard passing the city property at Holmesburg and Torresdale, where the bank of the river is occupied by the Torresdale filtration works, the House of Correction, and the Home for the Indigent. When Delaware Avenue is finished it will extend for seventeen miles, from League Island to Poquessing Creek.

The city planners devoted the Delaware bank chiefly to business. Its beauty was to consist in a broad, well paved thoroughfare and well-built docks. The new municipal docks set a high standard by their dignified and handsome style, which is being copied by the corporations which erect new docks. The Committee's treatment of the Schuylkill was different. The lower portion was also to have municipal docks, but the upper banks were to be considered with an eye to beauty chiefly. Any Philadelphian who has visited the Riverside Drive in New York understands what can be made of a river bank. On one side are fine residences and beautiful apartment houses and on the other the sparkling river. Winter and summer you may see hundreds of people seated on the tops of motor busses riding up and down this beautiful thoroughfare. Other hundreds are walking along the footways, or sitting on benches under the trees. Philadelphia could also have such a drive. New York, London, and Paris are cities situated like Philadelphia, on rivers, and all of these cities have laid out wide avenues along their river banks thus adding greatly to their beauty.

Philadelphia so far has only improved the banks of the Schuylkill within Fairmount Park. The plan is to extend the improvement south to Bartram's Gardens by constructing what are; known as the "Schuylkill Embankments," or boulevards along both sides of the river. The boulevard would be built at a higher level than the railroads and the docks, supported by steel and concrete framework. At the present time the banks of the Schuylkill between the Spring Garden Street and the Gray's Ferry Bridges present a very mean appearance and there is little shipping there. The "Schuylkill Embankment" would pass the Art Gallery at the entrance to the Parkway and so connect with that radial avenue.

9. Business and Residential Sections: Zoning Commission —Every busy and growing city must have a part of its area devoted to business, a part to manufacturing, and a part to residences. The manufacturing area should be convenient to the railroad terminals and to the water front. The business section grows up naturally in the center of the city where the transportation lines come together. A large part of the city, however, must be given up to the homes of the people.

As the city grows, manufacturing and business districts constantly increase in size, encroaching on the older residence neighborhoods. Everyone is familiar with some section of the city where houses are gradually being replaced by offices, shops, or factories. When the Declaration of Independence was signed, Sixth and Chestnut Streets was a fashionable residence neighborhood. Now, Chestnut Street as far west as the Schuylkill is in the last stages of the change to a business street.

It is natural that the central and older part of towns should be taken by business. The newer regions, however, might in many cases be used either for business or for homes. Who is to decide? The decision has been left to chance; with results that were often not desirable. Let us suppose that an area of well-built and comfortable houses, where many residents of moderate means own their own homes, begins to be invaded by factories. These bring smoke and noise and immediately the neighborhood becomes a less desirable place to live in. The dwelling houses in this area decrease in value. The city should safeguard its residential areas, yet also make provision for new manufacturing enterprises.

Many cities have solved this difficulty by dividing their areas into districts, making provision for business, manufacturing, and residential districts. The Legislature of Pennsylvania has passed a law allowing Philadelphia to appoint a Zoning Commission, whose business it shall be to see to this part of the city plan. The Philadelphia Zoning Commission was accordingly appointed and is at work upon this problem.

The city plan will not be complete until provision is made for satisfactory residence districts for people of small incomes. In the United States we are just beginning to realize that no community can prosper as it should unless its work-people are happy and healthy. Disease, crime, and inefficiency are fostered by bad housing conditions. High-grade laborers will not live in a place where housing is inadequate. American cities have been slow to recognize this, but many business corporations have built model villages for their employees as a business measure. One such is located at Marcus Hook, near Philadelphia. Since the United States has gone into the business of making ships and munitions it has undertaken to provide good homes for its working people. Congress has appropriated many millions to build houses in several localities in the Eastern States.

In England the people have made a good start in this matter. They have begun the construction of what are called "garden cities," where small but convenient, beautiful, and sanitary houses are built among trees and gardens. The houses are either near a great industrial plant where the men work, or near a transportation line which will take them to work for a very small fare.

10. Regulation of Buildings —The law says that this Zoning Commission may recommend regulations "for the location, size, and use of buildings." This is so that we may prevent the erection of the very high buildings called "sky-scrapers." If there are high buildings on both sides of a narrow street the street is very dark and many of the rooms in the buildings are dark. Where the center of a city is occupied by such large buildings it also causes difficulty in transportation arrangements. A host of people have to come into the buildings to work about nine o'clock in the morning and go home again about five o'clock in the evening. Even with all the surface cars, subway and elevated trains, and ferry boats taking these crowds home, it is impossible to avoid much delay, discomfort, and danger.

Regulation of buildings from the point of view of the architect and artist is also very important. We know that a number of fine and appropriate buildings are to be erected on the Parkway. But if there should be even a few unsightly and unsuitable buildings erected there they would seriously mar its beauty. Fortunately a law permits our Fairmount Park Commissioners to regulate the location, size, and use of buildings which come within 200 feet of any park, parkway, or playground under their care.

We are further assured of the future beauty of the Parkway and of all other parts of the city by the powers given to the Art Jury by act of the Legislature in 1907. This body of men is composed of several citizens prominent in architecture and art, appointed by the Mayor. Plans for all buildings, fountains, sculptures, tablets, paintings, and bridges to be presented to the city or purchased with the city's money must first be submitted to the Art Jury. The approval of the jury is also required for any structure belonging to any person or corporation which shall be erected upon or extend over any highway, square, park, or any public place within the city.

These regulations apply, of course, only to new structures. It is to be wished that power could be given to compel the removal of old and unsightly objects. The general powers given to these city bodies to control buildings are not as great as the power possessed in New York, and they should be enlarged.

More should be done to preserve our famous old buildings. The Bureau of City Property has completed a fine piece of work in restoring Independence Hall, Congress Hall, and Independence Square to their original appearance, even to the old colonial lamp-posts. The installation of automatic sprinklers also gives us assurance that these treasures of patriotic association and of architectural beauty will not be lost. It would be well for the city to rescue Carpenters' Hall from its obscurity behind ugly modern buildings, and to see that it and Christ Church, the Betsy Ross House, and other precious old places are surrounded by open spaces to protect them from fire and to give them a better setting.

Metropolitan Planning —We have seen that the city Bureau of Surveys has been making careful designs for the development of the portions of southwest Philadelphia not yet built up. Between that region and the city of Chester the country is rapidly filling with great industrial plants and suburban villages. These are growing up in an entirely miscellaneous and unregulated fashion. If Philadelphia had the power to extend her street plan to meet that of Chester this development might be made orderly, convenient, and beautiful. There is a similar need for extension toward the north and the west. In speaking of the outer park system it was suggested that Philadelphia should reach out into the surrounding country to save the valleys of the streams for park purposes. All the outlying regions should be planned with a view to a general park system. For these reasons it has been suggested that the city boundaries should be enlarged to make a greater Philadelphia, to include Bristol on the north and Chester on the south; or else that a "metropolitan area" should be created by act of the Legislature, including Philadelphia and the surrounding land for purposes of city planning.

Financing the City Plans —It will require a great many millions of dollars to make all the dreams of a "more healthy, convenient, prosperous, and beautiful Philadelphia" come true. Thirty or forty years may pass before we can afford to have all that has been planned. The advantage of planning is that whatever the city builds will form part of a harmonious whole.

It is not true, however, that all the expense of construction must come out of the pockets of the taxpayers. There are modern methods of making improvements pay for themselves which have not yet been tried in Philadelphia. Some of these are: assessing the costs of improvements against the properties benefited, excess condemnation and resale, and taxation of the unearned increment. These methods of financing will be explained in Chapter XVI.

Many of the improvements, such as the subway, the elevated electric roads, and the municipal docks, can be made to pay for themselves and finally yield a profit to the city.

Conclusion —When the financial problem seems too great and we are tempted to turn aside from the vision of a beautiful Philadelphia let us remember the advice of a famous city planner, Mr. Daniel H. Burnham: "Make no little plans; they have no magic to stir men's blood and probably themselves will not be realized. Make big plans; aim high in hope and work, remembering that a noble, logical diagram once recorded will never die, but long after we have gone will be a living thing, asserting itself with ever growing insistency. Remember that our sons and grandsons are going to do things that would stagger us. Let your watchword be order and your beacon beauty."

Chapter 12 - Getting A Living In Philadelphia

Business in Philadelphia —Philadelphia has many claims for recognition as one of the greatest cities of the country. In population it ranks third; it is also third in the value of the products of its industries; again, it is third in the value of the goods imported and second in the value of the goods exported; it stands among the first five in the richness of its financial resources. To grasp some idea of the magnitude of the business life which involves so many people engaged in the manufacturing and distributing of such wealth, it is necessary to classify the business carried on in Philadelphia and notice each class briefly.

Industries —Philadelphia owes its present industrial greatness to many factors. Our nearness to the sources of supply of coal and iron, the abundance of cheap labor available because of the great number of immigrants who came to our port, the various kinds of transportation that could be used—all combined to promote the growth of the manufacturing that began so early in Pennsylvania, and all served to induce other manufacturers to settle in our city. New industries are being continually attracted to Philadelphia for another reason too. Perhaps in no other single locality in the United States is there gathered together such a great body of skilled labor—mechanics, artisans, workers in all crafts. The skilled laborer is not usually a wanderer; he more often owns his own home and is not easily drawn from it and his family, so the industry must come to him.

In approximately 9,000 manufacturing establishments in Philadelphia, over 250 varieties of industry are represented. The war has made many changes in the relative importance of our industries, but the following are among the most important in the value of output: shipbuilding, clothing, textiles, iron and steel products, printing and publishing, sugar refining, leather (tanned, cured, and finished), petroleum refining.

There are some products of Philadelphia industries for which we are noted the world over. In the manufacture of locomotives our city holds first rank. Philadelphia-made felt hats are worn by men in every country from Canada to Australia. The mechanics and workmen of every country use saws, files, and other tools made in Philadelphia. The street railway cars for most cities of the world are built here.

Other products also have helped by their quality or value to make Philadelphia famous, but the story of our industrial greatness cannot be discussed further in this chapter. The Philadelphia Chamber of Commerce is issuing a comprehensive series of pamphlets, each of which gives an account of the processes in one of the industries which helps to make the city one of the world's greatest workshops.

Commerce —That Philadelphia should rank high in commerce is a natural outcome of its good location. The raw material for many local industries, such as textiles and sugar refining, come by way of the port of Philadelphia, and there is a big business in the handling of other imports. In 1916 the value of all goods imported here was nearly $100,000,000. In the value of exports Philadelphia ranks second only to New York, the goods exported in 1916 being valued at approximately $200,000,000. A great deal of this trade is in the raw materials found near the city. From this port is sent coal from the mines of Pennsylvania and West Virginia. Grain, lumber, and oil, both crude and refined, are shipped in large quantities. Exports of iron and steel from the sheet-metal mills of the state are heavy; and the commerce in the disposing of the products of our own factories is a vast business in itself. Besides these commercial lines which result from our industries and nearness to raw materials, Philadelphia has others which seem to be attracted here simply because of the volume of business. The wholesale paper trade is an example.

Because of our large population, our retail trade is enormous. In addition to the innumerable small retail stores, Philadelphia has five department stores which rank among the largest in the world.

The opportunity for securing our large population as a market, and the task of placing before a more distant public the products of Philadelphia manufacturers, account for the establishment in this city of the headquarters of the greatest firm of advertising agents in the country, while other advertising firms maintain offices here.

Finance —An industrial and commercial life of such proportions requires adequate banking facilities. Philadelphia has played a leading part in the financial history of the country, from the time of Robert Morris in the Revolution, Stephen Girard in the War of 1812, and Jay Cooke in the Civil War, down to the floating of the last Liberty Loan. Some of our banking firms date far back into the last century, and have a world position. The banks and trust companies number over a hundred, and have a capital of $200,000,000. For every day's business the transactions aggregate $40,000,000—fully $1,000,000,000 per month. Because of the volume of financial operations in this city, Philadelphia was made the center of one of the Federal Reserve districts. Our Federal Reserve Bank is in the Hornor Building, on Chestnut Street above Ninth Street.

What Philadelphia Offers in Occupations —Even this brief consideration of the wide range of business in Philadelphia would suggest the thousands of different jobs that are to be filled in order to get the work done and the products distributed.

Perhaps in no other city of the world, certainly in no other city in the United States, is there such a wide variety of choice of occupation as in Philadelphia.

1. Industrial Occupations —Even in one factory there are literally hundreds of different kinds of work, from the tasks that require only the commonest and most unskilled labor to the work that demands skill, training, and efficiency. In the highly specialized industries of to-day each worker performs but one process in the making of the product. For instance, in the shirt-making industry (included above under clothing) each process is performed by one person who does that one thing only, whether it is the guiding of an electric cutting machine or the tying up of the boxes in which the finished shirt is packed.

2. Commercial Occupations —In this very factory, besides the industrial workers, you will note a number of people whose work is connected in some way or other with the buying and selling of the raw materials and the finished products that are turned out from them. The task of transporting the raw materials into the city, either by rail or by ship; of unloading and carrying to the place of business; of carrying the finished product from the factory to the wharf or freight yard from which the vessel or train bears it from the city makes in itself a line of business which gives employment to many. The transportation of the population in street cars, trains, ferries, and automobiles is a slightly different commercial line offering employment. Much of the manufactured material made in our factories is sold right here in our own city, through the various wholesale and retail stores. The big department stores not only sell directly to the people of our city and those who come in from the outlying districts, but do an immense mail-order business. Many different kinds of occupations, with fine opportunities for advancement, are open to those whose ability lies along commercial or business lines. The agencies concerned in the collection and distribution of food, furniture, clothing, books and papers, and luxuries employ thousands of workers in a large city like ours.

3. The Professions —Many young men and women do not wish to enter either the industrial or the commercial world, but are attracted by the opportunities for further study and wider training and experience offered by the various professions. In this populous city there is a great field for the service of doctors, lawyers, ministers, teachers, and social service workers.

4. Agricultural Occupations —Not many people realize that fully one-third of the land within our city limits is under cultivation, though everyone knows that the part of Pennsylvania within a fifty-mile radius of our city is one of the finest farming sections in the state. Here is an opportunity for those who do not like the confinement of factory or office, but would rather be out of doors. Dairying, truck farming, the raising of flowers or fruit, poultry raising, and gardening are possible occupations for those who are fond of country life.

5. Other Occupations —Many occupations cannot be classified under any of the above headings, and yet they are all important for the prosperity, growth, and comfort of our city. Painters, bricklayers, carpenters, electricians, and . many others have to learn their trades, and all look forward to the time when they will no longer be employees but employers.

Opportunities for Training for Occupations —The sooner one can make up his mind what he wants to do for his life work, the better it will be for him, because he can then decide just what lines to follow in the education that is necessary as a preparation for any vocation. In making a survey of the occupations it is apparent that the more highly paid men and women, the ones with the most responsible positions, were the ones with the greatest amount of education and special training.

It may very well be that they did not get all that training while in school or college, but they have taken advantage of every opportunity to improve themselves in their special line of work. Boys and girls who leave school early may make what seems like a good wage to begin with, but they will soon find that the gates of progress are barred after they have gone a very limited distance. The United States Government, through its Bureau of Education, has made a survey which proves that it is actually worth money to stay in school and secure the training which will make advancement possible.

1. Public Schools —Philadelphia provides many opportunities for getting the necessary education in almost any line of work, even for those whose financial condition makes it difficult for them to stay long in school. In the first place, we have our wonderful public school system, already described in Chapter VIII, with its high schools, its evening schools in both elementary and high school grades, and its trade schools for boys and girls. In each of the higher schools the variety of courses offered gives opportunity for choice of subjects which will prepare for almost any vocation chosen.

2. Colleges and Universities —For those who wish to go further in preparing for a vocation, the University of Pennsylvania offers training in medicine, dentistry, law, finance and commerce, and engineering. There are free scholarships to the University awarded on competitive examinations to pupils of the city high schools. Temple University offers most of the vocational courses given by the University of Pennsylvania. The Drexel Institute offers instruction in engineering for men, and in domestic science for women, and gives secretarial training for both sexes. Those planning to teach or do social work may get preparation in the general courses in the beautiful suburban colleges at Haverford, Bryn Mawr, and Swarthmore, or at the city universities.

3. Technical Schools —In such a great textile center as our city, where tens of thousands of men and women are employed in the mills, there is great need for just such an institution as the Philadelphia Textile School, where the students learn how to be practical manufacturers with a knowledge of textile machinery, spinning, weaving, dyeing, and finishing. This school is only a part of the greater institution, the Pennsylvania School of Industrial Art, which is located at Broad and Pine Streets. Other important institutions are the Franklin Institute and the Spring Garden Institute, while in every part of the city there are branches of the Young Men's Christian Association and the Young Women's Christian Association.

There are in our city, or near it, literally hundreds of other schools, where one can learn to do almost anything—from typewriting and stenography to hairdressing, manicuring, and massaging. So the boys and girls who have decided their life work have a wide choice open before them in choosing the place where they will get their training for it. This very fact makes it all the more imperative that they should try in every way possible to make that choice wisely. Schools and colleges will furnish their catalogues on request, and teachers or friends may be asked to help in the choice.

4. Government Aid -The state government, through the Department of Public Instruction, enforces the state School Code, and endeavors to bring our schools and colleges up to a higher standard of excellence. Recently the feeling has been growing everywhere that more attention should be given to vocational and industrial education, and our state Department of Public Instruction has established two bureaus to promote that training in Pennsylvania. Our national government is now working in cooperation with the states in the promotion of vocational education. Just a few months before the war broke out the Smith-Hughes Act was signed by the President, and a federal Board for Vocational Education has already been appointed. The act provides that federal grants of money will be used to help the states to pay the salaries of teachers of trades, home and agricultural subjects. The war has shown the general shortage of trained workers, and has led many of the states to begin at once to make use of this federal aid.

Private Organizations Which Aid in Getting a Living —The young people who receive their training in the city of Philadelphia find when they get into the business life of the city that they have many interests in common with the other men and women who are doing the same kind of work. These common interests often draw them together into societies tie or associations for their mutual benefit.

1. For the Laborer —The skilled laborers in the great industries of the city are well organized into unions, according to the special work done in the industries The unions are interested in the hours of labor, the conditions under which the work is done, and the wages paid. By speaking for the men as a whole, better terms are made with the employers than each individual could make for himself. Sick benefits and unemployment allowances are other advantages enjoyed by members of unions. The unskilled laborers are not banded together to further their interests, unless they belong to some such general labor association as the Industrial Workers of the World, which is not a factor to be reckoned with in Philadelphia. The workers of the city as a whole are represented by the Central Labor Union. The local unions are frequently branches of national organizations concerned with the workers in a particular trade. The majority of these national unions and the smaller unions are affiliated with the American Federation of Labor, which is interested in general labor problems and represents the workers of the nation as a whole.

2. For the Business Man -In the same way the managers of business concerns, the manufacturers, and the bankers are drawn by their common interest in improving the business facilities of the city into forming organizations for more effective action. The Board of Trade is one of the oldest of these. Its members are interested particularly in the port facilities although its activities extend in all directions. The Chamber of Commerce, to use its own words, "was organized for the purpose of improving the commercial, manufacturing, shipping, and financial interests of the port and city; to initiate, advocate, and encourage whatever may increase the prosperity and welfare of all the citizens of Philadelphia and vicinity." Its membership registers over 5,000 manufacturers, merchants, bankers, and other business men, "organized for the purpose of acting cooperatively for the commercial advancement of Philadelphia." In the Manufacturers' Club the social aspect is important, as well as the business of looking after the manufacturer's interests in legislation.

These organizations are interested in the business problems of the city as a whole. There are also local organizations, such as the Walnut Street Business Men's Association and the Germantown and Chestnut Hill Improvement Association, each of which is especially interested in the problems of its particular district, and in calling the attention of the city authorities to its needs. As an illustration of the interests of these organizations, one of these states in its bulletin that it stands for "well-planned, clean streets, for the proper disposition of rubbish and garbage, for the removal of grade crossings, for adequate recreation facilities, for proper education of the young, and for a police protection which will make our district a safe and agreeable place in which to live."

The business life of a great community would not be complete without a Stock Exchange—a place where the stocks and bonds of corporations can be bought and sold. The Philadelphia Stock Exchange, at Broad and Walnut Streets, performs two services for the community. It helps to protect the investor, because of the publicity which it gives to the market prices of securities. It also serves a business function, as there must be a market for the securities of great transportation and industrial concerns in order that such concerns may come into existence and continue to grow. In Philadelphia the market for meat and grain brokers is the Bourse. Of course there is no produce to be seen in the Bourse, for the brokers buy and sell for others, not for themselves, and simply make the business arrangements in the great hall called the Bourse. One of the important exchanges in this hall is the Maritime Exchange. Through this exchange members can in time of peace find out the exact location of any ship in almost any place. If the ship is damaged on a voyage, for instance, the owner can get everything ready so that it is repaired immediately on reaching port.

Another organization which aims to help the Philadelphia business man, especially the manufacturer who wishes to develop his export trade, is the Commercial Museum. Most people know of the buildings of that name at Thirty-fourth and Spruce Streets, where exhibits are held and free lectures on geographical subjects are given on Saturday afternoons in the winter. This is only one side of the work of the organization. Its Foreign Trade Bureau and its Commercial Library collect and dispense all the information procured by the work of the Department of Commerce in Washington and by organizations interested in trade the world over. It keeps lists of firms in other countries, with facts and figures showing what they specialize in, how reliable they are; in short, everything that a business man in Philadelphia would like to know. Its translation department, for a reasonable sum, will help with the merchant's foreign correspondence. It publishes in both English and Spanish a paper called Commercial America, and circulates this abroad to attract the attention of foreign merchants to the advantages of the United States as a country in which to purchase goods.

3. For the General Public —Although the employees and employers have their separate organizations for furthering their particular interests, there are other private enterprises which have been undertaken with a view of supplying the needs of the community as a whole. One of these is our banking system. This makes it possible to transfer large sums of money from one person in our city to another person far away, merely by mailing a piece of paper. A man whose credit is good and who offers acceptable securities can, if an emergency calls for it, borrow money from his bank at a reasonable rate of interest. The banks not only keep our money safer than we can at home, but also pay us interest for that privilege. The banks of the city maintain a "clearing house" for their mutual convenience, assistance, and protection. Here all the checks and drafts received in the city banks are balanced, doing away with the innumerable transactions between individual banks which would otherwise be necessary. The building and loan associations which are so justly popular as an agency of investment are all private undertakings. So, too, are the companies organized to give various kinds of insurance. Many important insurance companies have their homes in Philadelphia.

Governmental Agencies Which Aid in Getting a Living —The community is so interested in seeing to it that private enterprises are conducted for the benefit of the community as a whole, that government regulation and supervision is provided in many cases.

1. The Government and Industry —Especially is this true of the industries, for if the workers were not safe guarded by governmental provisions the conditions of work might be such as to cause undue illness or unemployment and thus react on the welfare of the community The city has not the power to make provisions regulating labor conditions. This function belongs to the state, but the city joins with the state in enforcing the laws. The Child Labor Act of 1915 forbids the employment of children under fourteen, and the working of children under sixteen for more than nine hours a day or fifty one hours a week, including eight school hours. This is the law which provides for continuation schools, so that minors receive some schooling up to the age of sixteen. It regulates even up to the age of eighteen the kind of work which boys and girls may do. Such dangerous occupations as the manufacturing of paints, tobacco, and alcohol are prohibited for minors under sixteen.

Another law requires that boys under sixteen and all female workers be given not less than forty-five minutes for the midday meal, except when the hours of labor per day are short. Nor was it considered advisable that women should have too long a working day or work too many hours in the week; so to prevent this an act was passed in 1913 which forbids the employment of women for more than six days or fifty-four hours in any one week, and prohibits their employment for more than ten hours in any one day. Night work s prohibited for women in manufacturing establishments, and for all boys under sixteen and all girls under eighteen.
Of course, we should expect to find the laws for children and women more strict than those for men, but the state is nevertheless concerned that the ability of the men wage-earners to support themselves and their families should not be impaired. For this reason there are laws regulating the crowding of machinery in working rooms which might cause risk of injury to the employees, providing for adequate (250 cubic feet) air space for each person, and requiring the use of protective devices on dangerous machinery. Even these laws have been found insufficient, as employers often preferred paying fines for violating the laws to going to the expense sometimes entailed in complying with them.

For the further protection of the worker, the Workmen's Compensation Act was passed in 1915. In case an employee is injured the employer pays certain medical and hospital expenses, and pays to the worker (or to his family, in case death results) an amount of money based on the wages the employee received and on the seriousness of the injury. This is not compulsory but optional; neither employees nor employers are forced to comply with it. But it has been found to the employers' interest to do so, as certain legal advantages which employers formerly had in lawsuits were removed by this same law, so that if the case did not come voluntarily through the compensation provisions but went into the law courts the workmen had every advantage. A special board—the Workmen's Compensation Board—administers the cases which come up under this act. This board comes under the state Department of Labor and Industry.

Besides the laws we have mentioned, there are still others, such as the Fire Drill Act, providing for monthly fire drills in factories where women are employed, the Lead Poisoning Act, requiring "sanitary precautions and appliances" in certain establishments—all for the purpose of preventing people from working under conditions which might endanger their lives or lessen their ability to take care of themselves.

Various bureaus of the state Department of Labor and Industry have charge of enforcing these laws throughout the state, but in Philadelphia some of the city officials cooperate. The Bureau of Compulsory Education, for instance, enforces the Child Labor Act, and it is the duty of the Department of Public Safety to enforce the Fire Drill Act.

The state Department of Labor and Industry has, in accordance with the law passed June 4, 1915, undertaken another activity designed to help people to be self-supporting. It has established an employment bureau, with its central office at Harrisburg. The main purpose of this act is to reduce unemployment, to help the man or woman out of work to get a position; because every day that a man is out of a job costs him his daily wage and costs the community the value of his labor. Employers seeking employees and persons seeking employment are brought into communication with each other, so that both are benefited. The people in charge of these offices are also supposed to study the problem of unemployment and try to think out means of preventing it. The Philadelphia branch office on Arch Street, in the one month of July, 1916, received requests from employers for 591 workers They had 787 applications and referred 551 persons to positions. Of this number, 507 received the positions to which they had been referred. There is also a branch office in Kensington. The state operates this bureau without charge to employer or employee, and pays the cost out of the taxes collected from the people at large because it is the general public that in the end derives most benefit from the work of the bureau.

2. The Government and Commerce —Transportation of raw materials, of finished products, of people to and from their places of work, plays such an important part in the business life of the city that here again the organized will of the community finds expression in government regulation and aid. The part played by the Department of City Transit in securing rapid and safe street car transportation is discussed elsewhere. The state Public Service Commission also concerns itself with the transportation question within the city. Since the railroads coming into Philadelphia do an interstate business, the decisions of the federal Interstate Commerce Commission regulate the rates charged, both freight and passenger, and the accommodations offered.

In view of the size of our export and import trade, the use made of the port facilities concerns not only the city but the state and the nation. Then, too, the geographic position of Philadelphia is such that the development of the port cannot be the business of our city alone, nor even of the state of Pennsylvania. The work of the city Department of Wharves, Docks, and Ferries in supervising the water front, of the state Commissioners of Navigation in regulating river traffic, and of the Army Engineers of the federal government in maintaining and deepening the channel has already been discussed in a previous chapter.

That our export trade is a matter of interest to the national government is shown by the work of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. This bureau stands ready to furnish anyone who asks it information regarding climate, products, transportation, tariff rates, language, customs of dress, and food in foreign lands. These have been carefully collected in reports by American consuls and supplemented by the work of special agents. Moreover, they are all classified, and usually written up and printed in convenient form. Every day this bureau issues Commerce Reports, a newspaper containing important information collected by all the bureaus of the department. Anyone can get this at a very low cost. One manufacturer, however active and diligent, could not unaided collect for himself all the important facts, for instance, about the use of sewing machines in Chile. The furnishing of such aid in making business successful is the reason for the existence of this bureau of the federal Department of Commerce.

In another way the federal government affects the business life of Philadelphia. Every time a new law dealing with the tariff (duty levied on imported goods) comes up in Congress all the business men are greatly concerned. Most of the great industries of our city, especially the textile industry, have been protected by the very high tariff from the competition of foreign industries. The tariff law now in operation is the Underwood Tariff of 1913, and in it the rates generally are lower than they have been since before the Civil War.

3. The Government and Finance —As was the case in connection with industries, the city government does not have the power of making laws to regulate financial transactions. The state of Pennsylvania, however, has helped our banking system to attain its present height of efficiency by making and enforcing through its Banking Commissioner laws to prevent speculation with bank funds, or other unsound practices. State laws also regulate the handling of money by the building and loan associations, so that people who invest their savings in the stock of these organizations run slight risk of being defrauded. The insurance companies come under the supervision of the Insurance Commissioner. Another government agency to prevent fraud is the Patent Office at Washington, a bureau of the Department of the Interior. By applying for a patent here an inventor is assured of the exclusive right to make and sell his invention for the term of seventeen years.

Business conditions in Philadelphia are often affected by the financial state of the country as a whole. In order to lessen the danger of panics President Wilson succeeded in getting Congress to pass, in December, 1913, the Federal Reserve Act. This divided the United States into twelve districts in each of which is located a Federal Reserve Bank. As has been said, Philadelphia is the center of one of these districts. These banks do not receive deposits from nor make loans to individuals They are, as the name indicates, reserve banks in which each of the banks of the district deposits a certain percentage of its reserve. The national banks, getting their charter from the federal government, must join the system; the state banks are urged to join. This system is designed to assist the banks over times of financial stringency; for when a member bank desires to issue notes it can sell to its reserve bank "commercial paper"—that is, the notes of individuals it may be holding—and receive "reserve notes" to circulate as money. Thus an emergency currency is quickly available. This system has proved its value to the business men of the country many times since the great war began in 1914.

Conclusion —These various agencies, private and public, may not seem to affect directly all the two million citizens of Philadelphia. In the long run, however each individual is affected by what concerns the larger community—the city, the state, or the nation. And while men may band themselves together to further the interests of one section of the city or of one class of the people in the city, the interests of the small group ultimately are those of the large community. The task of the government is to supplement the work done by the private agencies in promoting the business life of the city, and to direct their activities into lines helpful to the whole. As the chief interest of most people is in getting a living, so the community takes a vital interest in the opportunities given the individual. It shows this interest early in the life of each person, in providing for his education and compelling him, for his own good, to spend a fixed number of years in school. In this school the varied courses begin an actual preparation for getting a living. Later, in industry, the interest of the community is expressed in the laws aiming to help the individual to remain self-supporting, and in agencies to widen the opportunities afforded by the city. In all these ways the community is acting in its own interest, too, for of course from the person prepared for earning his living and assisted in that task the community expects a return of increased efficiency and loyalty.

Chapter 13 - Charities

Just as city conditions make the problem of preserving health more difficult, so also they make it harder to be sure that every person in distress finds a good neighbor when he needs one. In trying to supply all the forms of neighborliness that may be required in a city, a very elaborate and complicated system has grown up. The more modern term "social service" better expresses what the various institutions and societies are trying to accomplish, if with the older term "charity" is associated only the giving of alms.

Cooperation of Public and Private Agencies —Let us see first what the city in its public capacity does for its poor. If some neighbor should tell a policeman that a poor widow was very ill and her children needed care in a certain house, what would he do? After making sure the story was true, he would send for the ambulance of the Philadelphia General Hospital at Thirty-fourth and Pine Streets, where they would all be taken. The woman would be first admitted to the receiving ward. If she was well enough she would be questioned by a member of the Social Service Department as to the history of her case, thus helping her doctor and assisting in determining the best care for the children. Then after examination she would be placed in the proper ward.

If one of the children was found to be feeble-minded, he would be brought before the Municipal Court and committed to the care of the Children's Department, thus becoming a ward of the city. He would then probably be boarded out in a supervised home, and later, if room could be found for him, sent to the State Institution for the Feeble Minded at Spring City, when he would become a ward of the state. The other child, being mentally normal, would be boarded out temporarily in one of the private agencies or homes for the care of dependent children. This agency might be the Children's Bureau, 419 South Fifteenth Street, where he would be kept at the shelter which it supervises until the outcome of the mother's sickness was determined. Here he would be given a thorough physical examination and receive any needed treatment. If the mother should die, the child would become a permanent ward of the Department of Public Welfare, and would continue to be boarded out, perhaps through the Children's Aid Society. Meanwhile the record of this family would be looked up in the Registration Bureau, 425 South Fifteenth Street, and if at an earlier date some society had helped them, that society would be informed and its cooperation secured. In any event, the fact of the present work being done would be recorded for future reference, thus helping to make a sensible, continuous effort out of what might have been disjointed, inefficient work by a variety of "neighbors," neither of whom knew the other. This bureau, where most of the Philadelphia charitable agencies register their cases, affords an excellent example of a city need which would not arise in a rural community.

In the story of this family one fact is evident—the cooperation between public and private agencies. This is especially true in the care of children. The city very properly does not allow children to be kept in its institutions for adults. When they are received at the Children's Department at Thirty-fourth and Pine Streets they are examined by a physician, and if ill they are sent to the children's hospital, which is outside the grounds; or, if ready for placing, they are distributed among various agencies—the Children's Aid, Catholic and Jewish institutions, Home Missionary Society, etc.

Feeble-Minded Children —A distinct problem is presented by the feeble-minded children, who constitute about one-fourth the number handled by this department. It is the accepted theory that the state should care for all the feeble-minded. They need care by specially trained attendants and teachers. A variety of indoor and outdoor occupations should be provided that will make all the higher grade feeble-minded self-supporting. This can best be done on a large scale in a sort of village or colony. Pennsylvania now maintains two institutions, one for the western part of the state at Polk, and one for the eastern part at Spring City. There is also under construction a state home for feebleminded women. The present state provision is entirely inadequate, but the city, hoping for a better day to arrive, has not built an institution of its own for the care of these unfortunates. Nearly three hundred Philadelphia children are placed at Spring City. At Elwyn there is a private institution receiving state aid which cares for over three hundred more, and fifty are being boarded in supervised private homes. But this provision is by no means adequate, and feeble-minded adults are to be found in the city homes for indigent men and women and in the insane hospitals. It is only since 1913 that the court could commit for feeble-mindedness just as it does for insanity, that is, put the feeble-minded person under the guardianship of the city or state. The community now is beginning to awaken to the seriousness of feeble-mindedness; to realize that it descends from parent to child; and to believe that feeble-minded persons should not marry, but should in most instances be cared for throughout life in farm colonies or in other institutions.

Homeless Men and Women —Now let us suppose it is a man who is found sick and homeless in Philadelphia. He is received, like the woman already described, at the General Hospital and treated until well enough to leave the sick wards. If he can go to work right away he may be helped by the Social Service Department to get a job, through the state Bureau of Employment at 1519 Arch Street. If he needs convalescent care he will be sent to the "Men's Outward" at Holmesburg. Here in a home overlooking the Delaware, large enough to accommodate 1,500 men, he may stay permanently if he does not become able to support himself. There is a large, finely equipped bakery at this home where, with the help of the inmates, all the bread used in the charity institutions controlled by the city is baked. This home is designed primarily as a home for the indigent and has no special fitness for a convalescent home. Several private institutions offer free convalescent care to women, but there is a lack in Philadelphia charities both public and private, in the care of convalescent men.

The indigent women are housed partly in one building of the Commercial Museum at Thirty-fourth and Pine Streets, and partly at what was once a fine country residence at Spring Hill Farm, generally known as Brown's Farm, not far from the men's home. As soon as the city appropriates enough money to build more houses at the new location, all the indigent women will be transferred to it. Occupation is found in sewing for those who are able to work, making articles needed in the institutions. The home at Spring Hill Farm is very attractive with its sun-parlor overlooking the river, its vegetable gardens, cared for by some of the indigent men from Holmesburg, and its generally home-like air.

It is only since 1910 that Philadelphia has begun to move its charitable institutions to the northeastern outskirts of the city. Before that they were all at Thirty-fourth and Pine Streets—so-called Blockley, from the name of the township when the almshouse was located there in 1834. The increase in the city's population caused very serious overcrowding before the present transfer began. The old idea of an almshouse, one which still exists in some country communities, is a place where all kinds of poor people are taken—men, women, and children, sick and well, sane, insane, epileptic, and feeble-minded. That is what the Philadelphia almshouse was at the beginning of this century. Of course there was an attempt to classify the different kinds, but when you crowd over five thousand people into five acres of ground you cannot keep them well separated or make them very comfortable. The noisy insane patients are likely to disturb others, children catch each other's infectious diseases, and feeble-minded and mildly insane people who could be happy out of doors at work are housed up in dull idleness.

The Insane —Although modern practice favors state care of the insane, for the same reason as of the feeble-minded, Pennsylvania has not yet adopted it in a thoroughgoing fashion. So Philadelphia has had to build its own asylum at Byberry, also in the northern part of the city. This is not entirely completed, but some buildings are already in use and over eight hundred men and women have been transferred there. Here a model farm gives outdoor occupation to the mildly insane men and often helps to restore them to health. The handwork for insane women is planned with special reference to their reeducation and contributes greatly toward their improvement.

Philadelphia General Hospital —The part of the institution at Thirty-fourth and Pine Streets which will doubtless remain there for many years to come is the Philadelphia General Hospital, a huge institution caring for over two thousand patients and all types of disease. A generous appropriation by the city in 1915 made it possible to install many needed improvements: a new nurses' home, a finely equipped pathological laboratory, a power house outside the grounds, a modern diet kitchen, and, what was equally important, gallons and gallons of fresh paint. Not all of these improvements are completed, but all are under way.

The hospital is built around four sides of a hollow square—a huge white building, inside heavy whitewashed walls, the whole enclosure covering five acres. It can be approached only from the east, that is, from Thirty-fourth Street, and very much needs access from the west. A bridge across the Schuylkill is also needed to bring South Philadelphia nearer.

The General Hospital and the Insane Hospital each has its chief resident physician. The children's agent is also head of the Social Service Department, and accomplishes a wonderful amount of work in both fields.

In the Children's Department over eight hundred children are brought to the city's care in a year. The Social Service Department consists of a staff of workers who find out about the home conditions of needy patients, and try to see to it that when they are discharged they do not go back to the old hard conditions.

All that has been said as to Philadelphia public charity refers only to a portion of the city. Germantown, Bristol, Roxborough, Oxford and Lower Dublin, Moreland, and Byberry, when they came into the city in 1854, all retained the right to manage their own charities and to be exempt from a corresponding portion of the city tax.

Department of Public Welfare —With the coming into force of the city charter of 1919, the Department of Health and Charities, under which the Bureau of Charities operated, ceased to exist. Two new departments took its place, viz., the Department of Public Health (referred to in the chapter on "Health"), and the Department of Public Welfare, which absorbed the Bureau of Charities, the Bureau of Correction, and the Board of Recreation. The Department of Public Welfare has the care of all charitable, correctional, and reformatory institutions under the city's control, and all public playgrounds and recreation centers.

Mothers' Assistance Fund —Another rather recent form of public aid to be established in Philadelphia is the Mothers' Assistance Fund. Before various private; societies, and later the state, began helping mothers in their own homes, it used to be the custom to let such a family be broken up. That is, the mother would have to place her children in homes of some sort while she went to work to support herself, perhaps paying a little towards their board. Then people began to see that since the children must be cared for it would be much better to let the mother, if she is a good one, train her children herself.

So in 1913 the State Legislature passed an act creating such a fund for widowed mothers with two or more dependent children, half the amount to be contributed by the state and half by the counties of Pennsylvania which availed themselves of it. It is administered under the Department of Education, putting the emphasis on the fact that the mother is being helped to educate her children. At the Philadelphia office, 1414 South Penn Square, there are a chief agent and four assistants who investigate cases and keep track of them, collecting the school reports of the children and advising as to living conditions and care of their health, until the arrival of the children at working age takes the family off the assisted list. At present they are administering an inadequate fund of some $60,000 a year, assisting about two hundred families, with a thousand more on the waiting list.

Private Associated Charities —In addition to these public means of expressing the neighbor spirit, Philadelphia, like all other great cities, has a vast number of private agencies that are trying in one way or another to help those who need it—children, old people, the crippled, and the handicapped of all sorts. The societies of a more general scope, and those which endeavor to centralize the other individual agencies, are located in the Charities Building, a rather hopeful name for a row of old residences on Fifteenth Street below Pine Street. These buildings have been altered to fit as well as possible the needs of half a dozen societies. The societies located here are the Children's Bureau, the Registration Bureau, the Children's Aid Society, the Society to Protect Children from Cruelty, the Seybert Institution, and the Society for Organizing Charity. Some time, it is to be hoped, Philadelphia will have a modern Charities Building in which her citizens can take pride; for the bringing together in one place of societies which work in conjunction is a great saving of time and effort.

Dependent and Delinquent Children —There are more than seventy-five institutions and agencies in and near Philadelphia caring for dependent and delinquent children. From Girard College, "probably the wealthiest orphanage in the world," down to the private boarding homes, the problem of supervision and cooperation exists. To meet this want the Children's Bureau was organized in 1907. It endeavors to prevent duplication of work among the various agencies and to bring about greater efficiency through round-table conferences, the publication of a periodical called Cooperation, and other means. The bureau at present reports an oversupply in Philadelphia of agencies admitting young children, who are often better cared for in supervised private homes, and a lack of those admitting boys and girls of ten years and over—an age at which institutional care, with industrial training and vocational guidance often works best. A shelter is maintained where children are kept during the investigation of their cases. It is very important that children, before being placed in institutions, should have a thorough medical examination and not be placed with other children if they have communicable diseases. This work has been so thoroughgoing that "in no other city of the United States has the medical care of dependent children been so carefully developed as in Philadelphia."

The Children's Aid Society of Pennsylvania is the chief child-placing agency, having on its list at present over eighteen hundred children from Philadelphia alone. When the Children's Bureau decides that a child needs placing out and is physically fit for it, the Children's Aid Society finds it a home—a temporary one if the child's own home is likely to be restored, or a permanent one if that is needed. This will most likely be a boarding home, although a few children are legally adopted each year. The boarding homes are visited frequently until the boy or girl comes of age, while teachers and pastors make direct reports about the children to the society.

The Pennsylvania Society to Protect Children from Cruelty has its field of work indicated by its name. It is confining itself more and more to its own specialized work, leaving the child-placing, if that becomes necessary, to the agencies that exist for that purpose. Its office is open day and night, and its aid can always be secured for the protection of a child from cruelty or neglect.

When the problem is not the child but the family as a whole, the chief agency for constructive work often combining that of many different agencies is the Society for Organizing Charity. With its central office and its thirteen branches, it undertakes to help people in their own homes, and over seven thousand families come under its care in a year. In each district there is a trained worker for superintendent, and a Friendly Visitor's Conference—a committee of volunteers who assist her. In many families who are assisted the money need is small. Sometimes no financial help at all is needed. What is wanted is an organized, intelligent neighbor spirit to give advice and sympathy, and to help the family untangle problems of management that it never could have solved alone. The national and even international character of organized charity makes it possible for this society to reunite many families whose members have become widely separated.

Jewish Charities —Besides the center at the Charities Building at Fifteenth and Pine Streets, there are two other centers for charitable work, the Federation of Jewish Charities and the Catholic Children's Bureau. The headquarters of the Federation of Jewish Charities is at the Empire Building at Thirteenth and Walnut Streets. This is a financing society, somewhat on the plan of the "war chest," which undertakes the support of thirteen related societies. These societies unite not only in their financial appeal but in their annual meeting and annual report, and work in close conjunction. Of these societies, the United Hebrew Charities corresponds rather closely to the Society for Organizing Charity, the Juvenile Aid to the Children's Aid, and the Bureau for Jewish Children to the Children's Bureau already described.

Catholic Charities —The Catholic Children's Bureau at 1700 Summer Street is a diocesan institution, and is under the charge of the Director of Diocesan Missions. All the child-caring agencies of the diocese are supervised from this office and a shelter is maintained for temporary care. The bureau does not itself give home relief, but when home relief is needed it works through a central children's bureau conference of the St. Vincent de Paul Society. This is an international men's society, organized in each parish, which does volunteer visiting and almsgiving in the homes where help is needed, as well as in prisons, almshouses, and hospitals.

Financing and Standardizing of Charitable Work —When the financing of these public and private charities is considered, the problem is a difficult one. The treasuries of the state of Pennsylvania, of the city and county of Philadelphia, and private funds, all are drawn upon to bear this burden of dependency. The state spends annually nearly two million dollars in partially caring for Philadelphia's insane, feeble-minded, deaf, blind, and inmates of various private hospitals and homes. The city and county of Philadelphia spends something over two million dollars for the same purpose. Then, in addition to these four millions which are raised by taxation, there are all the funds raised by private subscription for the various private agencies. The greatest need in both city and state is for a centralizing body which shall untangle the finances, make some satisfactory plan as to the several responsibilities of city, state, and private agencies, plan a budget for the public appropriations, and help to standardize the relief given by both public and private agencies.

There is a State Board of Charities which, if its powers were enlarged, might find itself able to perform this much needed service for the charities of the whole state. But an aroused and enlightened public opinion would be needed to back up the findings of this board and secure their embodiment in definite legislation. And already a private organization, known as the Public Charities Association, has been formed to do this educational work.

The Philadelphia citizen finds himself confronted with a variety of duties if he is to be a good neighbor to the unfortunate. He must pay his taxes, and must give of his private means to those charities that he selects as most deserving and most appealing. He must also give of his time in some of the ways in which volunteers are needed, for "the gift without the giver is bare." And, finally, he must help to add to the number of well-informed people whose interest and effort will, we hope, some day bring about a cure of the social disease known as poverty.

Chapter 14 - The Courts And Law Officers

Wherever men have organized themselves into communities, they have established courts to settle disputes between private individuals and to enforce the law. Everyone knows a city community has its laws and ordinances which must be obeyed if the city is to be a safe and pleasant place to live in.

Another chapter will show us the significance of law and explain how laws are made for Philadelphia. At present we shall concern ourselves only with the way the courts interpret and apply the law in our city, either in the prosecution of an offender or in a dispute between private citizens. The former is known as a criminal case, while the latter is known as a civil case.

Magistrates' Courts —When you see a policeman pick up a drunken man on the street and drive off with him in the patrol wagon, do you wonder what becomes of him? Usually he is kept over night in a cell in the police station unless his friends come and bail him out. The person acting as bail have to give a bond or some kind of security that the man will appear for trial. The next morning he is taken before a magistrate, who has come to the station house to hear cases. If he is not an old offender he is usually released on the payment of a small fine, with the costs of the proceeding often added.

The magistrates hear in the police station most of the cases of drunkenness, vagrancy, assault and battery, petty larceny, and breaches of the peace. They can also fine for such offenses as cruelly to animals and spitting on the sidewalk. They may sentence offenders in these cases, but for anything more serious they can simply hold the man for the grand jury. Then there is a central magistrate's court in City Hall, which holds night as well as day sessions. In their own offices the magistrates hear small suits relating to bills, claims, rents, and other minor disputes relating to money matters up to one hundred dollars.

There are twenty-eight magistrates elected by the people, two-thirds by the majority party and one-third by the minority, for the term of six years. The magistrates are usually not trained in the law, and no record is kept of the proceedings in their courts. Now that the Municipal Court has been established, many of the civic bodies of the city have recommended that the magistrates' courts be abolished. But it is difficult to make any change, for the office of magistrate is provided for in the state constitution.

Municipal Court —In 1914 the Municipal Court was founded. It was hoped that this would somewhat relieve the burden of work on the upper courts, and also would take many cases away from the magistrates and pave the way for their abolition. These hopes to a considerable extent have been realized.

Under the new arrangement the Juvenile Court (already established) became a division of the Municipal Court. The other divisions are: domestic relations, misdemeanants, criminal, and civil. We shall consider the divisions in that order.

Juvenile Division —Philadelphia has no parental school; therefore, a boy or girl who plays truant from school too many times is likely to be taken to the Juvenile Court and brought before the judge. There was a time when a child who broke the law, either in this way or in some other, would be given a hearing in the same courtroom with the adults, who might be there for drunkenness, theft, or various other offenses. He might be given a ride in a patrol wagon and locked up over night in a police station. This was not good for the child.

In 1903 the present Juvenile Court law was passed in Pennsylvania; this made it possible to deal with children who do wrong in a separate court to which the public is usually not admitted. The judge acts as a sort of parent, representing the interest which the community has in the welfare of every boy and girl; and he tries to find out with the assistance of probation officers and others, why the child has failed to observe the rules which everybody has accepted. Bad home conditions or an undeveloped mind make it hard for some children to get on in the world. Consequently they have to be looked after, either at home by a probation officer sent by the judge, or in an institution where they will receive the training necessary to get along in the world.

Probation work began about thirty years ago, and during the past ten years has grown wonderfully throughout the country. Many courts now have one or more persons attached to them whose special work is to furnish guidance to people, young or old, who get into trouble and are brought to the court. The probation officer makes a point to find out all about the man, woman, or child concerned so that the court can deal intelligently with the case.

There is a House of Detention connected with the Juvenile Court, where boys and girls may be held awaiting trial or pending the settlement of their cases. While in the House of Detention children attend school and also get whatever medical attention they require.

The Juvenile Court is not a place where punishment is meted out, but a place where children who have made a misstep will receive sympathetic treatment in the effort to prevent a recurrence of the trouble. Judge Ben Lindsey of Denver is the best known juvenile court judge in the world. Nearly everyone has heard or read about him.

Another work of the Juvenile Court is the care of poor children whose parents, through misfortune or neglect, cannot support them. In case of misfortune, they are kept with their parents and an order is made on the county for their support. In case of neglect or vice or intemperance of parents, they are sent to institutions or boarded out with strangers at the expense of the county. The theory is that the family is the foundation of the state, and that it should be kept together if possible. The Juvenile Court can also deal with parents who are responsible for their children's wrongdoing.

Domestic Relations Division —When the father of a family deserts, or does not do his duty by supporting his wife and children, the woman may complain to the Domestic Relations Division of the Municipal Court. An attempt is always made to get a man to do the right thing for his family. Sometimes he is made to pay a certain part of his wages each week to the court for his wife's benefit, instead of to her directly. In the last resort he is sent to the House of Correction.

The methods in this court are immensely better than under the old system in the Quarter Sessions Court. The division has a number of probation officers and investigators. This court also deals with grown sons and daughters who, being able, do not help support their needy parents.

Misdemeanants' Division —There is another branch of this court which is known as the misdemeanants' branch Here are brought young people over sixteen who for various reasons cannot be managed by their parents, and who stay out late at night on the streets or go with bad companions.

Criminal Division —Then there is the criminal division of the Municipal Court where persons are brought for stealing, fighting, reckless driving, and other offenses against persons and property. Here also offenders are often given an opportunity to pay back what they have stolen or to make good while on probation. If, however, a probationer does not live up to the conditions under which he is released, he is brought in and fined or sentenced to jail or prison.

Civil Division —In the civil division of the court suits are brought for wages, damages for personal injuries, and numerous small claims. The court tries to settle claims promptly, and hopes eventually to make it possible for a poor man to conduct his own case if necessary. Many cases are heard without a jury.

Continuity —The policy is to keep the same judge sitting in a particular branch so that he will acquire skill in handling a certain class of cases. In Chicago there is a court for traffic cases only, such as fast driving, in which the same judge sits continuously.

The Jury —A jury is a body of twelve men selected from the assessor's list for the purpose of deciding the facts in each case. The judge guides them in matters of law and makes the final decision, known as a judgment, after they have settled the questions of fact by their verdict. It is unfortunate that under our system the judge, who is generally the most skilled person in court, has so little to do with settling the case. The plaintiff, who brings the suit, and the defendant, who is sued, may waive a trial by jury in civil but not in criminal cases. Article 6 of the Constitution of the United States prevents a man from doing this, on the theory that he cannot risk his freedom. In England the jury system is rapidly being abandoned, and there is a tendency in that direction in the United States.

The fees for beginning suit in the Municipal Court are still too high, being the same as in the Court of Common Pleas. This tends to throw the small claims into the magistrates' courts, which can decide claims up to one hundred dollars. However, claims amounting to more than $5.33 can be appealed to the Court of Common Pleas.

A Lawsuit —Suppose a man cannot collect a bill for five hundred dollars which is owing to him, so he institutes a suit in the Municipal Court. After the claim has been filed, the proper papers served on the man who owes the money, known as the defendant, his answer filed, and the day fixed for trial, the suit is ready to be heard.

First, the plaintiff's attorney—the plaintiff is the man bringing the suit—states his side of the case; and tells what evidence he proposes to introduce to sustain his claim. The defendant's attorney then does the same for his side of the case. Witnesses for the plaintiff are then questioned by the plaintiff's attorney and cross-questioned by the defendant's attorney; after which the process is reversed, and the defendant's witnesses are questioned and cross-questioned. (Had this suit been brought in the Court of Common Pleas, the witnesses for the plaintiff would have been heard before the defendant's side was presented at all.) The defendant's lawyer then makes a closing argument, and the plaintiff's lawyer makes the final argument. The judge now instructs the jury, if there is one, how to apply the law to the facts in hand. After retiring from the room the jury returns and renders its "verdict." That is, it finds from the facts and the law in the case whether the defendant owed the money to the plaintiff. The defeated party may ask for another trial, which is either granted or refused by the trial judge. This ends the case, unless it is later appealed to a higher court.

Appeals —If either party is not satisfied with the result of a civil case before a magistrate, he may appeal to the Court of Common Pleas. Likewise in some criminal cases the defendant (person on trial) may appeal to the Court of Quarter Sessions. The same judges preside in both these courts. All appeals from the Municipal Court are heard by the Superior Court. All constitutional questions are finally decided by the Supreme Court.

Common Pleas Court —The judges of the Common Pleas courts are elected by popular vote. In Philadelphia there are five courts of Common Pleas with three judges for each. They are all courts of record; that is to say, the proceedings are all recorded so as to be permanent. In these courts are begun nearly all cases involving any large amounts of money, such as suits on contracts and on personal injuries or torts. They also have equity jurisdiction. By this is meant that where there is no adequate remedy at law they will help the injured party.

Torts —Most of the cases of personal injuries come under the head of torts. The biggest class of cases comes out of personal injuries sustained on public conveyances, trains, and trolleys.

Contracts —A contract is an agreement between two or more parties to do or not to do a certain thing. It is the business of the courts when there is a dispute to ascertain whether there is a contract, and if so, what was the intention of the parties in making the contract.

Criminal Courts —The same judges sit in the Court of Quarter Sessions of the peace and the Court of Oyer and Terminer and general jail delivery. These are the two criminal courts in which are tried nearly all offenders held by the magistrates or indicted by the grand jury. The former tries all lesser crimes, while the latter tries cases involving murder or manslaughter.

Grand Jury —The grand jury is composed of twenty-three men selected by lot from the list of registered voters. They hear the evidence against various people, and if they feel that the facts are strong enough they return what is known as "a true bill" or indictment. The indicted man then goes to trial. If they do not feel that the evidence against the person is sufficient they return the bill "ignored."

The grand jury is supposed to visit the public buildings in the county, such as the poorhouse and the prisons. It also makes investigations occasionally into matters regarding the morals of the community. The men first selected for jury service are known as veniremen; the men called later, after the panel or list of men summoned is exhausted, are called talesmen.

Orphans' Court

—The Orphans' Court has charge of the estates of deceased persons, and account has to be made to it for the distribution of the estates. It also appoints guardians for minors to whom properly has been left. This court is one of great importance, because in its hands rest the welfare and happiness of many widows and children.

Superior Court —The Superior Court was created in 1895, to relieve the pressure on the Supreme Court from the numerous appeals from lower courts. These appellate courts do not hear witnesses and do not have a jury. They take up only questions of law, based on alleged errors before the trial court. The law of evidence is intended to keep a case within certain bounds, so that the parties (litigants) shall try to establish their contention in the most direct manner and with the best evidence procurable. For example, if you were the only witness of an accident you would be the best one to testify and not your brother whom you told about what you saw. If the appellate court finds that the law has not been properly interpreted in regard to a case, it orders a new trial, or it may reverse or affirm the decision of the court below.

On the criminal side the Superior Court hears all appeals from the Court of Quarter Sessions, and from Oyer and Terminer except cases of murder which go directly to the Supreme Court. It hears all appeals from the Common Pleas and the Orphans' Court not involving more than fifteen hundred dollars. Under certain circumstances cases may be appealed from this court to the Supreme Court, especially if the state or federal constitution is involved.

Supreme Court —The Supreme Court, as its name suggests, is the highest court in the state and is the final court of appeal within the state. In a few instances cases may originate in this court. As in the Superior Court, the Judges consider only questions of law, all facts having been settled by juries in the trial courts below. No law enacted by the legislature really becomes a fixed part of the whole body of law until it has finally been passed upon by this court, and declared to be in agreement with the constitutions of the United States and of Pennsylvania. Of course, many cases go on to the Supreme Court of the United States for final settlement, but this is the exception rather than the rule.

Reform of the Courts —In recent years our courts have come in for a great deal of criticism. Many people have felt that the poor man has no chance because he does not have money enough to carry his case up to higher courts and to pay lawyers' fees. Fortunately the courts themselves are trying to overcome this feeling by doing everything they can to give a man with little or no money a chance. In Los Angeles there is a Public Defender who sees to it that the defendants get a fair trial.

Moreover, it has been urged that the courts are slow in getting their business disposed of. It is true that our courts are not so well organized as those of England, where not only the bench but also the bar is so organized as to give the best results. Furthermore, the very court procedure itself and the law of evidence have been very difficult for the ordinary person to understand and very easy for a lawyer who is dishonest to turn to his own ends, which may not be those of justice. Under these conditions men who are really guilty of crime often escape punishment and no doubt sometimes those who are not guilty suffer.

Our courts and our associations of lawyers are thinking and working on these problems. The courts do not claim to be perfect and therein lies the hope of reform. The people are not made for the law but the law for the people. The courts are only social agencies, like the school or the Department of Public Works.

Methods of Selecting Judges —There are three methods of selecting state judges: (1) election by the people; (2) appointment by the Governor, and (3) election by the Legislature. The first is the most common method and the third is very rare. All judges in Pennsylvania are elected. Some people feel that better judges would be secured through appointment by the Governor than by popular election. The federal judges are all appointed by the President.

Appointive Power of Judges —The Board of Judges of the Common Pleas Court in our city has, in addition to judicial powers, appointive powers. The members of the Board of Education are appointed by the judges, likewise the Board of City Trusts, the Board of Viewers, the Board of Revision of Taxes, the Fairmount Park Commission, Inspectors of County Prisons, and others. This power was placed in the hands of the judges in the belief that the important matters with which these boards had to deal would thus be better managed. Some of Philadelphia's most distinguished citizens have served in these appointive offices.

License Court —These same judges, moreover, sitting as members of the Quarter Sessions Court, also have the responsibility of granting liquor licenses. This duty often brings them severe criticism, especially when they permit a saloon to open in a neighborhood where many residents oppose it. The question of prohibition and local option is becoming increasingly important, and people do not like to have this matter so completely out of their control and placed in the control of the courts.

The Bar —Lawyers as a group are spoken of as "the bar." To be admitted to the bar nowadays in most states requires many years of study and a vigorous examination. This is true especially in Pennsylvania. In recent years the standards for admission to practice law in the courts have been raised. Unfortunately, the legal profession has become somewhat of a business. Some men have often gone into it to make money rather than primarily to see that justice is done. However, our state and national bar associations and our university law schools seem to be on the road to produce the right kind of lawyers.

Clerks of the Courts —The Prothonotary is the clerk of all the civil courts in the county except the Orphans' Court. He is appointed by the Board of Judges. He has a number of subordinates, for in a county like Philadelphia there is a large volume of work and much responsibility in keeping the court records. An additional clerk, elected by the people, is provided for the Quarter Sessions Court. It is not apparent why the Prothonotary should not render the same service for this court as he does for the others, nor why one should be appointed and the other elected. The criminal division of the Municipal Court comes under the clerk of Quarter Sessions.

Tipstaves —Every court has officers known as tipstaves, who are appointed by the judges. These men are merely attendants.

Criers —Every court has a crier who opens court by making a certain announcement when the judge enters the room. The form of this announcement is often amusing, since the criers are still using the same words that were used several hundred years ago. Everybody in the court room rises and stands until the judge takes his seat.

Constables —Another officer, elected by the people, is known as the constable. He serves writs and does other work for the magistrates' courts somewhat corresponding to that of the sheriff for the county courts. Each magistrate has two or three connected with his office.

Prisons —In Philadelphia we have the House of Correction, the county prisons at Holmesburg and Moyamensing, and the Eastern Penitentiary, which is a state prison. Moyamensing is used principally for those awaiting trial.

Prison Reform —We have seen how the courts are being reformed. The same thing is happening to the prisons and jails. Society has found that to put a man into a damp cell, feed him on bread and water, dress him up in stripes, and let him live in idleness, as used to be done and still is done to some extent, is not the way even to punish. Prison reform to-day aims at making the prisoner a better man by keeping him healthfully employed, by providing opportunity for schooling and for learning a trade so that he can earn his living when he gets out, and by giving him new ideals of conduct. Moreover, the modern prison does not believe in solitary confinement, the striped suit, nor the lockstep. In other words, we want to make a man instead of to break him. Society wants to save even those who commit serious crimes. It wants to fit them for a return to a place in the world. There was a time when the lot of the released prisoner was a hard one. Nobody wanted to hire him if he had no references; but to-day there is more of a willingness to employ him, especially if he has learned a trade. There are societies to help discharged prisoners. When Thomas Mott Osborne was warden of Sing Sing prison he established a Mutual Welfare League among the prisoners. This provided for self-government of the prison by the men themselves and the plan worked splendidly.

Indeterminate Sentence —Many judges now, where the law permits, are not sentencing offenders for a definite period, based on the seriousness of the crime, but for an indefinite period, usually with a minimum depending on their behavior while under confinement. In other words, a man's stay in prison is determined by his own needs, such as education, moral training, a trade, by the way he improves while in prison, and by many other things.

Parole —Parole really follows the indeterminate sentence. The man when released gives his word that he will make good if he is freed. If he does not keep straight he is brought back to prison to serve out his complete sentence.

Suspended Sentence —One of the new ways of dealing with first offenders is to sentence them, and then to suspend sentence on condition that they give up drink, stop stealing, or abandon whatever it is that has brought them before the court. This has been found to be an excellent way of giving a man a chance while still keeping a firm hold on him in case he resumes his old ways.

Capital Punishment —Hanging and electrocution are known as capital punishment. This has been abolished in some states and life imprisonment is the most severe punishment. It is doubtful whether capital punishment reduces crime.

Sheriff —Turning now to some of the officials connected with the courts we come to the Sheriff. The office of sheriff used to be much more important than it is to-day. This officer stands for the peace of the county over which he has charge, but his police powers are rapidly dwindling. He keeps prisoners awaiting trial in the county jail, and his deputies serve warrants of arrest for the courts. His principal work is serving writs, which mark the beginning of a lawsuit. He sells property to satisfy judgments secured in the courts; that is to say, if the losing party in a suit cannot pay, his property can be sold. He sells the property of those who fail to pay their taxes and gives notices of elections. He and the Coroner are county officers provided for by the constitution.

Coroner —The Coroner should really be a medical examiner and is so in some states. In Pennsylvania he is a sort of judicial officer, and assisted by the coroner's physicians holds inquests or examinations into cases of sudden death. He has a jury consisting of six men, who render the final verdict. Some believe that the Coroner is no longer needed, and that under modern conditions all of his work can be done by the police with the assistance of medical advisers.

City Solicitor —The City Solicitor is the legal adviser and attorney for the city. He conducts its cases in court; advises its officers; prepares and approves contracts; is required to make daily returns to the City Controller of all moneys received, including fees for preparation of contracts, bonds, etc.; approves all securities, and keeps a registry of contracts, bonds, etc. He is the head of the Department of Law, a new department created by the 1919 charter, and is appointed by the Mayor. Formerly he was elected by the people.

District Attorney —The District-Attorney is the prosecuting officer in all criminal courts except those of the magistrates. Every crime is an offense against the commonwealth, and he represents the state in all these cases and sees that its rights are guarded.

Recorder of Deeds —There are two other county officers whose duties are such as to bring them fairly under the designation of "law officers." These are the Recorder of Deeds and the Register of Wills. The Recorder of Deeds has charge of the records of all transfers of real estate from one person or corporation to another, and of all mortgages on real estate granted by the owner as security to someone who has presumably loaned him money. The recording of the deed is to protect the purchaser against a later fraudulent sale of the property, by the original owner, to a third party. The recording of the mortgage is to protect the holder of the mortgage against a later mortgage given by the owner to a third party, and also to show any purchaser just what incumbrances (debts) are against the property.

Register of Wills —This official is far more than a custodian of legal papers. He not only keeps the records of all wills probated, but he exercises judicial authority in the settling of estates. He admits wills to probate, deciding which will is valid when more wills than one are discovered. When no will can be found the Register of Wills appoints an administrator. He receives the final accounting from the executors or administrators and files it with the Orphans' Court, of which he is ex-officio the clerk. But it is to the judge of the Orphans' Court that the executor or the administrator must look for discharge papers when the estate is finally settled.

The County —Frequent reference has been made to "county" officials, so that a brief discussion of the county may be helpful to the reader. Counties are the principal subdivisions of the state or commonwealth. As public corporations they have the right to own property for public purposes, to sue and be sued, to erect public buildings, and even to lay and collect taxes.

County officials not only enforce their own local ordinances, but they help to enforce state laws as well. Practically all of these officials are elected, which gives the people of each county a large measure of what is known as "home rule." Other county officials, such as the county commissioners, not described in this chapter are mentioned in other chapters of the book.

Since the Consolidation Act of 1854 the city of Philadelphia has been extended to cover all of Philadelphia County. Unfortunately, as many people think, the city and county offices were not merged at the same time. As a result, there exists some overlapping of jurisdictions. Efforts have been made repeatedly to effect a real combination of city and county, with the elimination of unnecessary offices and a better assignment of duties to those that remain.

County Officers in Philadelphia Elected by the People

Sheriff
Coroner
Register of Wills
Recorder of Deeds
Three County Commissioners
City Treasurer
City Controller
Clerk of the Courts
District Attorney

[Notwithstanding the fact that their titles seem to indicate that they are city officials, both the City Controller and the City Treasurer are county officials.]

Chapter 17 - Civil Service

Honest Service Needed — We have already seen that the city government does a great many things for the members of the community and that it is important to have these things done well. How are we to get men and women of the kind we need to do all of these different kinds of work for us? When we think that altogether there are about twenty thousand persons in the service of the city government we must realize at once that not all of them can be chosen by election. There would be so many candidates that we could not know enough about each one to vote for the best person in every case. Hence we prefer to choose only a few of the men holding the more important offices and then let them see to it that the city's work is well done. In other words, we elect the Mayor, members of Council, and a number of other officials and give them the power to appoint the rest of the city's workers. For convenience, we may refer to the persons who are elected to office as "elective officials" and to those who are appointed to office as "appointive officials."

The Short Ballot — Our experiments in self-government are convincing many people that it is better to have fewer men elected and more appointed. There is no doubt that our ballot in a great many cities and states is still too long for the ordinary voter to know something about each of the candidates and to vote for the men best fitted for public office. If the ballot were shortened and the voter had to elect men for the important offices only, he would be able to choose much more intelligently. This idea is gaining acceptance very rapidly among political thinkers and is being gradually adopted by cities throughout the country. Popularly it is known as the "short ballot" idea.

The Spoils System — The danger of placing large powers of appointment in the hands of a few men is that they will fill offices with their political friends. All of these employees will in turn influence their friends to vote with them, and the result will be a great organization which cares only to profit by holding and controlling public office. Elections then may become mere contests for place, power, and profit rather than expressions of belief as to public questions. In other words, the parties become mere rivals for spoils. As soon as a new administration comes into power it immediately removes the city employees who are members of the rival party and puts its own friends into office. City jobs are looked upon as spoils of political warfare which the victorious party has a right to distribute among its faithful followers. This general practice has become known as the "spoils system" of public employment.

Philadelphia's First Civil Service Law — The first step away from the spoils system in Philadelphia was taken in 1887, when the civil service section of the Bullitt Bill went into effect. This section provided for open competitive examinations to determine the fitness of applicants for appointive positions in all departments under the city government. The enforcement of this section was entrusted to a board composed of the Mayor and the heads of departments, known as the "Municipal Executive Board of the City of Philadelphia." Unfortunately, under this arrangement the power to make and enforce rules for selection and promotion was given to the same men who were obliged to obey the rules. The result was that employment conditions in the city service were not very much better than they had been under the spoils system.

Reforms of 1906 and 1919 — The year 1906 marks the beginning of the present system of public employment in Philadelphia. In that year the State Legislature of Pennsylvania passed an entirely new law governing our local municipal service. This law provided for a civil service commission of three members, none of whom could hold any other public office. Under the law the mayor was supposed to remove a commissioner only for good cause, to be stated in writing. This restriction was not binding, however, for under the constitution of the state of Pennsylvania the Mayor had the power remove a commissioner whenever he pleased without even stating the cause. It often happened that when a new mayor took office he either requested all the Civil Service Commissioners to resign or removed them by means of his constitutional power, and then appointed men of his own choice.

The framers of the new charter of 1919 realized that the Civil Service Commission should not be at the mercy of political fortunes if the service was to be administered impartially, and they decreed that the Commissioners all be elected by majority vote of the Council and shall hold office for four years. Vacancies are filled in the same way.

General Duties of the Commission — It is the duty of the Civil Service Commission to look after the employment needs and problems of the city government. It has to do everything that is usually done by the ordinary employment department of a private business or factory, and needs to be much more exacting in its methods. As a rule, a private employment department is concerned only with getting and maintaining a highly efficient group of employees and may use any available means to secure this end. A civil service commission, however, must use methods that not only make for efficiency but also are in harmony with our ideals of democracy and justice. It must see that all persons seeking or engaged in public employment are treated alike on their merits and are dealt with fairly at all times. In order to make sure that this is done the civil service law prescribes the broad outlines of the methods to be used, while the details are left to the commission to work out in its own way subject to the Mayor's approval.

Classification of the Service — One of the important things outlined in the law is the classification of the city service. The purpose of this classification is to guide the Civil Service Commission in its methods of selecting workers for different kinds of positions. In its broad outlines, the classification is as shown on the following page.

The Unclassified Service — The reader will notice in this outline that the entire city service is divided into the unclassified service and the classified service. The unclassified service includes all elective officials, such as the Mayor, the members of Council, the City Controller, etc. It also includes appointive officials whose appointment is subject to approval by the Council, as, for example, the Director of Public Health, the Director of Public Welfare, the Director of City Transit and the Director of Wharves, Docks and Ferries and all assistant directors of departments. These have to decide upon matters of public policy and therefore must be chosen by political rather than by civil service methods. The unclassified service also includes persons temporarily appointed to conduct a special investigation, persons who in times of public emergency may be appointed as special policemen or firemen for service not to exceed one month in duration, and persons employed by contract to perform a special service for the city where such contract is certified by the Civil Service Commission to be for employment which cannot be performed by persons in the classified service. (See diagram of the City Service, p. 344.)

The Classified Service: The Exempt Class— The classified service consists of three distinct classes, namely, the exempt, the competitive, and the labor class. Of these three classes, all except the exempt class come distinctly under the Civil Service Commission. The offices and positions in the exempt class, however, are as clearly outside the scope of civil service as the unclassified service. Part of the positions in this class are specified in the law and cannot be otherwise classified by the Civil Service Commission. This is true of the secretaries or clerks to the directors of departments, and the secretary and clerk to the Mayor. The other positions in this class are positions which the Civil Service Commission thinks it cannot fill by means of civil service examination. During recent years, however, it has been shown by the more progressive civil service commissions that even the very highest paid technical and expert positions can be filled successfully by means of open competitive examinations.

The Competitive Class — The great majority of offices and positions outside the labor class are included in the competitive class. Practically all bookkeepers, stenographers; clerks, engineers, doctors, inspectors, policemen, firemen, and skilled workers of all kinds belong in this class. All of these employees are chosen by means of open competitive examination, and this test makes up he principal work of the Civil Service Commission.

The Labor Class — The labor class includes all unskilled laborers in the city service. Under the provisions of the law the Civil Service Commission may adopt any practicable means of selecting laborers, but ordinarily only an examination showing them to be physically fit for the work is given to applicants for labor positions.

The Physical Examination — We have already mentioned the physical examination which is given to all labor applicants. It is given also to applicants for all other positions, especially to those who want to become policemen or firemen. The purpose of the examination to find out whether the applicant is in good general health, whether he has physical defects that would interfere with his work, and whether he is strong enough to do the particular kind of work for which he is applying. Policemen and firemen have to meet all of these requirements and in addition have to qualify in height and weight.

The Mental Examination — Practically all applicants for positions in the competitive class must pass a mental examination. This examination usually consists of a written test very much like an examination in school. Each applicant is handed a list of questions, which he answers in writing as best he can, and then his answers are marked and graded by the examiners of the Civil Service Commission. The questions asked pertain to the work of the position for which the examination is held and also to the general information of the applicant.

For the more important offices, the questions in the mental test may relate to broad problems of administration and call for a fairly long discussion. For example, in the examination for the position of assistant chief, division of housing and sanitation, bureau of health, department of public health and charities, $1,900 a year, held on March 3,1916, applicants were asked, among others, the following practical questions:

1. Prepare a blank form for a nuisance inspector's report. 2. In what form would you record the results of nuisance inspection so as to give a comprehensive view of the work accomplished? 3. The chief of the division is away on sick leave. A tenement is reported in which two rooms, each about 10 feet by 15 feet, are occupied by a man and wife, four children, and six boarders. What action would you take? 4. Upon what grounds would you refuse a permit to keep a horse in the yard of a tenement house? 5. A basement water closet has been ordered removed from a dwelling owing to the backing up of the sewage. The owner writes a letter of protest saying that she is a widow of small means and cannot afford to make the change ordered. She promises to attend to the objectionable conditions as they may occur, so that they will not endanger the health of the tenants. Frame your letter in reply.

Training and Experience — Another test which all applicants for positions in the competitive class must undergo is an examination of training and experience. Each applicant must state in writing what schools and colleges he has attended, what special studies he has pursued, and what practical experience he has had. These statements help the examiners to judge whether the applicant is fitted for the position to be filled.

The Oral Interview — The oral interview is still another method of testing the fitness of applicants for a considerable number of positions. It is used principally in examining applicants for duties that require the exercise of a great deal of judgment, tact, and personality. Inspectors, for example, as well as heads of divisions and chief clerks, frequently are given an oral interview as part of their examination. For lower grade positions this interview is a very simple affair. The applicant appears before one or more of the examiners, who ask him a number of simple questions regarding his education and the work he has done and observe his general appearance and manner of replying. For high grade and expert positions very often this interview is conducted by a board of men who themselves are experts in the kind of work for which the examination is held. For example, when the Chief Examiner of our Civil Service Commission was chosen in 1915, a number of noted civil service experts from different parts of the country were asked to come to Philadelphia and assist in interviewing the applicants.

The Practical Test — In recent years the practical test has been used a good deal, especially in selecting men for skilled labor positions. In a test of this kind applicants are required to show their ability by actually doing a piece of work which only a properly skilled workman can perform. Painters, for example, are asked to do an actual job of painting; blacksmiths, to do actual blacksmithing; and machinists, to do work requiring skill as a machinist.

Investigation of Character — Investigation of character is another means recently introduced of determining the fitness of applicants for city positions. This consists of inquiring closely into the past record of the applicant to see whether he has been guilty of any crimes or other acts that would make his employment by the city unwise. Investigation of this kind is especially important in selecting policemen and firemen.

Use of Various Tests — Not all of these tests, however, are used in every examination. In each examination the commission uses only those tests that seem best adapted for selecting men for the particular kind of work to be done. Cooks, for example, might be given a practical test and their experience might be looked into, but they would not be asked to write a thesis nor to appear before an oral examining board. Applicants for high administrative and technical positions, on the other hand, would not be given a practical test, but might be asked to prepare a thesis and also to submit for examination articles and books that they had written. So in every other case the Civil Service Commission would use the kind of tests that would best enable it to find out whether applicants are able to do the work for which they are applying.

The Unassembled Examination — Of late years the so-called "unassembled" examination has been used to considerable extent in filling high grade administrative and expert positions. In an unassembled examination the applicants do not meet in a single room to write their papers, but may be asked to prepare in their own home or office a discussion of some practical problem of administration and a statement of their training and experience and of the constructive work they have accomplished. These written discussions and statements are then sent to the Civil Service Commission by mail. The commission may also examine any books or articles published by the applicants, and take into consideration the reputation and professional standing of the various competitors.

The great advantage of the unassembled examination is that the best men all over the country may compete in it without serious inconvenience to themselves, and thus any city may obtain by an impartial method of election the most expert persons regardless of their location. This kind of examination has been used quite frequently in Philadelphia, and with excellent results.

Eligible Ratings — After applicants have been examined they are given ratings by the examiners of the Civil Service Commission. A separate rating is given for each test, and the different parts of each test are also rated separately. Then the separate ratings are averaged and the resulting average rating determines the applicant's standing. If this rating is as high as seventy per cent the applicant's name is placed on a list of eligibles in the order of his standing, the person with the highest rating being placed at the head of the list. Those who fail to get a rating as high as seventy per cent are not considered qualified for the position and are not placed on the eligible list.

Method of Appointment — Once an applicant gets his name on the eligible list he is in line for appointment to a position for which the list is appropriate, but that does not mean that he is sure to be appointed. If he stands very low on the list, his name may not be reached before the end of the period during which the list is in force. Eligible lists remain in force not longer than two years. Formerly when a vacancy occurred in any department of the city government the head of the department might appoint any one of four persons at the top of the list. The new charter changed this rule and requires the certification of only two instead of four names standing at the head of the list in the examination. Of these two the appointing officer must select one. In this connection it should be noted that in most cities three names are certified for a single vacancy, and in Chicago only one name is submitted, so that no eligible can be passed over entirely. If an eligible list consists of less than two names the appointing officer may treat such appointment as temporary; in that case the commission must hold an examination and secure an eligible list as soon as possible. The appointee from this list serves for a probationary period of three months. If his work is satisfactory, his appointment becomes permanent; if not, the appointing officer notifies him in writing that he will not be retained in the public service after the three months' period.

The work of the Civil Service Commission, however, does not consist entirely of examining applicants for original appointments. It also has important duties to perform with reference to employment problems that arise after employees have been brought into the city service.

Promotion — One of these internal problems of employment is that of promotion. Every person who enters the city service hopes some day to rise to a better position. The Civil Service Commission may make promotions from the lower to the higher grades on the basis of the records of efficiency and seniority furnished by the departments, or on competitive promotion tests, or both.

Removals — Another problem of employment arising within the service is that of providing security against unjust removal. This problem is difficult and its solution has not yet been worked out. In Philadelphia no employee under the protection of civil service may be removed for political or religious causes, and when he is removed the head of the department must state his reasons for the removal in writing and submit it to the Civil Service Commission. The accused employee may make a written reply to this statement, though he may not be reinstated. Policemen and firemen, however, cannot be removed unless they have been tried and found guilty by the Civil Service Commission or by a trial board appointed by the Commission. Formerly, policemen and firemen were tried by a trial board of their own. But the new charter did away with these boards, and charges against policemen and firemen are in future to be determined by trials conducted under the supervision of the Commission. No employee may be removed for religious reasons.

Standardization of Salaries and Grades — The new charter directs the Civil Service Commission to standardize the salaries and grades in the city service, so that positions involving the same work will be in the same grade. Grades having duties of the same general nature and in the same line of promotion are to be placed in the same class, and the lines of promotion are to be definitely specified. For each grade the Commission is to determine a standard minimum and maximum rate of pay, and to report the same to the Mayor and the Council.

Politics in the Civil Service — In order to keep politics out of the civil service, drastic regulations are set forth in the new charter. City employees are forbidden to take active part in political campaigns or to use their offices to influence political nominations. Moreover, they must not solicit, collect, or receive any assessment, subscription, or contribution, whether voluntary or involuntary, intended for any political purpose whatever. The penalty for disobedience is a fine and dismissal from office, with possible imprisonment for policemen and firemen.

Importance of Good Commission— The civil service just outlined, if properly administered, insures a considerable degree of fairness in appointment and promotion, and also helps to make the city service much more efficient than it was before the new charter was adopted. A great deal, of course, will always depend upon the manner in which the system is carried out. It is very important to get the right kind of men to act as Civil Service Commissioners. If the Civil Service Commission is composed of men who are in hearty sympathy with the spirit of the civil service law and who take an active interest in improving employment conditions in the city service, the results will soon be obvious in every department of the city government. The public business will be attended more promptly and in a more orderly manner. Our hospitals will be safer places for the sick; our food will more wholesome; the streets of our city will be cleaner and more attractive; our houses will be more secure from pillage and fire, and Philadelphia will be a better and more beautiful city in which to live.

Chapter 18 - Parties And Elections

Some Definitions — If this country of ours were an autocracy or despotism, a few people would do all the governing and all the rest would have to obey whether they wanted to or not. Those who gave the commands would be the rulers, and those who obeyed would be subjects. Fortunately the United States is a democracy, where the people govern themselves through officials whom they choose to carry out their will. In a democracy the mass of people are citizens, not subjects, and those who do the governing are responsible government officials, and not rulers.

In a democracy the people have the right to select their governing officials, and hence elections must be held frequently and regularly. Anyone whose name appears on the ballot to be voted for at any election is called a candidate, while the whole group of candidates of one party is usually known as a ticket. Back of each candidate there is usually an organized group of citizens known as a political party. This party is made up of those who agree in most matters as to how the government—of town, county, state, or nation—is to be run. Each of these parties, in turn, has its own officers, selected by those who vote that party ticket.

Qualifications for Voting — The purpose of voting is to express the will of the people about governmental policies and the officials who shall execute them. This is of such fundamental importance in a democracy that all necessary steps must be taken to safeguard the ballot. In a small town "everybody knows everybody else," and but few precautions need be taken. In a big city, especially in sections where the population is a shifting one, personal acquaintance is extremely limited; and the honest voters, who are the great majority, must be protected against dishonest practices. The election law of Pennsylvania, as it applies to Philadelphia, is perhaps unnecessarily complicated through the effort to set up these safeguards. To have the privilege of voting in Pennsylvania one must be a male citizen of the United States, at least twenty-one years old, and must have paid a state or county tax if he is over twenty-two years of age. In addition, one must have lived in the state a year—unless a former resident of the state, in which case it is six months—and in the voting precinct two months. The last requirement is for the purpose of preventing what is known as the "colonizing" of voters, namely, the bringing of outsiders into a voting district at the last moment in order to carry an election unfairly.

Another dishonest practice connected with elections is known as "repeating," by which is meant the going about from one polling place to another and casting a vote under a false name at each place. In order to put a stop to "repeating," and also to help prevent "colonizing," the law compels each voter to appear in person before the registrars of his election district and there register his name, occupation, residence, place of birth, and even a brief personal description. To this he affixes his signature, which serves as an additional means of identification in case his right to vote should be challenged when he appears at the polls.

But the end is not yet: he must also enroll. Under the old law the voter at the primaries asked for any party ballot he wanted, and voted it. In case he was challenged by a watcher he had to swear or affirm that he expected to vote for a majority of that party's candidates at the next election. Taking advantage of this law, the leaders of the majority party would sometimes arrange that in each voting precinct enough of their voters should ask for the other party's ballot to secure the nomination of the weakest candidates on the minority party's ticket. Their own candidates would thus have an easy time of it at the ensuing election.

This trick, known as "swamping" the opponents' ticket, has been rendered more difficult by requiring that if a man would vote at a primary election—except for judges, who are on a non-partisan ticket—he must go before the registrars of his election district and be enrolled with some political party. When he enters the polling place he can secure only that party ballot, and hence cannot vote any other ticket.

As an additional precaution, the law provides that the voter shall always enroll with that political party a majority of whose candidates he voted for at the last general election. In practice, men frequently do not do this, but change their enrollment; for the only risk in so doing is that of having their enrollment challenged, in which case they will either have to decline to enroll at all or else swear falsely as to how they voted at the last election. Many people are coming to believe that any test of party membership which encourages falsehood is not a good one and should be changed.

The Primary Election — In Pennsylvania, as in most of the other states, two elections are held each year. The first one is called the primary election, or simply "the primary" from the Latin word primus, meaning first. At this election each party selects its candidates who are to be voted for at the general election in November.

It has been found that state and national elections have had an undue influence on city and county elections, because people let their interest in national and state matters influence their voting in local affairs. For instance, men have often voted for a Republican candidate for mayor of Philadelphia, regardless of his fitness for the place, thinking that thereby they were helping the cause of a protective tariff. Accordingly, the state and national elections are now held in the even-numbered years, while city and county elections occur in the odd-numbered years. The primaries for the state and national elections are held on the third Tuesday of May, while those for city and county elections fall on the third Tuesday of September.

In order that the voter may easily reach the polling place—"the polls"—where he is to vote, the city is divided up into voting precincts, each containing a few hundred voters and each having a centrally located polling place.

Now let us see how an election is actually conducted. We will begin with a primary election. When the voter goes to the polls, which are open from seven in the morning to seven in the evening, he enters a room, at one side of which is a table. Behind this table sit the election officials, five in number: a judge, two inspectors, and two clerks. Before entering the room the voter has probably read over one of the bright-colored sample ballots which usually hang near the entrance, so as to know in advance what candidates he wants to vote for. As he passes by the table he gives his name and address, whereupon an election official detaches a white ballot from its stub, folds it in a certain manner, and hands it to him. This ballot can only be of that party with which he is already enrolled. When judges are to be voted for, an additional non-partisan ballot containing their names is also handed him.

Before going into the voting booth with our voter, suppose we stop to discover how all the names he will find on his ballots ever arrived there. In Pennsylvania, and in many other states as well, there is what is known as nomination by petition. In brief, this means that any citizen having the legal qualifications for an office may get his name on a ballot sheet, provided enough of his friends and supporters who are qualified electors will sign a nomination petition, asking that his name be placed on the ballot as a candidate. The number of signatures needed depends on the importance of the office, and varies all the way from five to a thousand. In case the office is a state or national one the nomination petition must be filed at Harrisburg, with the Secretary of State. If it is a local one the petition is filed with the County Commissioners—the same group of three men who arrange for the printing of the ballots and furnish all the equipment of the polling places.

But we must not forget our voter, who is patiently waiting for us to accompany him into the voting booth. This is a little box of a place, curtained off from the main room and furnished with a writing shelf, over which is suspended a lead pencil attached to a string. Our voter unfolds his unwieldy "blanket" ballot and tries his best to find the names of the men he wants to vote for. This list is often too long for him to remember unless he either has a list with him or has marked a sample ballot in advance and brought that in. So difficult has it become to mark these long ballots correctly, and to decide intelligently between the various candidates, that many people are asking for a shorter ballot. For example, at the general election in 1915, the official ballot measured 45 by 25 inches, called for the selection of 38 officials from a list of 157 candidates. In addition the voter was asked to pass upon four amendments to the state constitution. What they want is that only the most important offices shall be filled by popular election, and that the officials, thus chosen by the voters shall appoint to the less important offices. These appointments and all promotions are to be in accordance with a set of rules and regulations known as "Civil Service." (See Chapter XVII.)

Almost everyone in Philadelphia has seen a sample ballot, and knows that the names of candidates are arranged under the titles of the offices they are seeking, and that opposite each name is a square where the voter may place a cross [X]. Having marked his ballot, our voter refolds it as directed and slips it into the ballot box, which stands on the table where the election officials can guard it.

The Uniform Primaries Act says distinctly that no voter "shall be permitted to receive any assistance in marking his ballot, unless he shall first make an affidavit [a sworn statement] that he cannot read the names on the ballot, or that by reason of physical disability he is unable to mark his ballot." Unfortunately, voters can often be bribed or threatened into asking for assistance when they re not entitled to it. Thus they admit into the booth with themselves men who are acting as spies to see that the votes are cast for certain candidates favored by the leaders. This "voters' assistance" provision of law has come to be regarded as doing more harm than good, and should either be amended or repealed.

Another clause of the Primaries Act rightly provides that no ballot shall be rejected for any error in marking which "does not render it impossible to determine the voter's choice." The law also allows a voter to return a ballot he has unintentionally spoiled in marking and get another one in its place.

Our voter's right to cast his ballot may have been challenged before he entered the booth, in which case he was obliged to "swear in" his vote. This he did by swearing or affirming that he was the man he claimed to be and that he was entitled to vote in that election district. Of course, should it afterward be discovered that he had sworn (or affirmed) falsely he would be liable to punishment for perjury, that is, swearing to a lie.

It may be interesting to know that several people are "keeping tab" on those who vote. When our voter was handed his ballot one of the election officers put a mark opposite his name in a "ballot check list," and when the ballot was placed in the ballot box another official made a similar mark in a "voting check list." Besides this, several men known as "watchers"—who were standing about the room with small books in their hands containing lists of the voters of that precinct—checked off our voter's name as having cast his ballot. The reason for this last performance becomes plain along late in the afternoon, especially if a keen contest is on between rival candidates, when automobiles are sent out for careless or indifferent voters who have not yet appeared at the polls. It ought to be felt a disgrace by any well man to have to be reminded of his right and his duty to vote at the primary election or at the general election in November.

As soon as the polls are closed the counting of the vote begins. The ballots are opened and the results read aloud by one of the officials, while the votes for the various candidates are checked up on a ruled tally sheet by another official. Whenever a ballot is found that is not marked according to the directions on the ballot itself, the judge of elections must decide how much of the ballot is plain and can be counted. A fair judge will obey the law and admit all of a ballot he possibly can. An unfair one will throw the ballot out altogether, or make a ruling that will favor his own side. Most judges are honest, and when they are not they are often afraid of protests from the watchers, who are keeping a sharp eye on everything that happens.

When the votes have all been counted for each candidate the results are sent to the County Commissioners, along with the stubs and the unused ballots. The commissioners at once make a recount from the tally sheets to see that no mistakes have been made. They may even reopen the ballot box of some voting precinct, but only when ordered by the Court of Common Pleas. And the court will not give such an order unless it has been petitioned to do so by some of the voters of that district, who believe that "fraud or error" has been committed by the election officers.

The Campaign — The candidates of the various parties having been selected at the primaries, the parties prepare themselves for the test of strength that will come at the election. This preparation is known as the "campaign," and is conducted mainly through personal solicitation, speeches, newspaper articles, and pamphlet literature mailed directly to the voters.

Sometimes the campaign is a quiet one, and but little interest is aroused. But usually, whether in municipal or in state and national elections, the interest is keen and every effort is put forth to win votes. Not all of these efforts are honest or legal, for bribery and intimidation have often occurred in city elections. "Bribery" and "intimidation" are big words, but even our young citizens cannot learn their meaning too early or the menace they offer to democracy in our large cities.

The General Election — Coming now to the general election, we discover that the same election officials are serving here that were acting at the primary election, and that the procedure is about the same. As we have already seen, an elector is not supposed to change his mind between a general election and the following primary, but must enroll and vote with the same party. But he is perfectly free to change his mind between a primary and the succeeding general election, and may vote for different candidates from the ones he helped put in nomination at the primaries. You will notice that this gives us a secret ballot at the general election, but an open ballot at the primaries; that is, it is known in advance what party's candidates a man will vote for at the primaries but not at the general election.

While at the primary election the voter sees only the ballot of the party with which he is enrolled, at the general election his ballot contains the names of all the candidates. These names appear under the titles of the offices for which they are running, and at the right of each name is the title of the party or parties whose candidates they are. Thus each name appears but once, while the party names are repeated again and again. Where a candidate has been "endorsed" by more than one party, the voter will place his cross in the square opposite the name of his own party. This indicates the relative strength of the various parties, and determines the order in which they will appear on the ballot at next election.

In case the elector wishes to vote a straight party ticket, and not "split" his vote by voting for candidates on more than one ticket, he will mark a cross opposite the name of his party. These names he will find in a column at the left side of his ballot. This kind of ballot, containing both party squares and a grouping of offices, is called the "party square" ballot. If party squares and all party titles were omitted, we should have the so-called "Massachusetts" ballot.

Should the elector wish to "split" his vote he may either place a cross opposite the name of each candidate he prefers, or place a cross in his own party square and then other crosses opposite the names of such candidates outside his own party as he wishes to vote for. If he follows the latter plan, his party square vote will count for all the candidates of his own party except where he has otherwise indicated.

The Non-Partisan Ballot — In Philadelphia all judges except the police magistrates are voted for on a ticket that has no party label on it. The purpose of this arrangement is to lift the office of judge above the strife of political parties or factions. This non-partisan ballot is printed separately and also on the regular party ballot. The former is given only to the voter who is not enrolled with any party, or who wishes to vote only the nonpartisan ticket. The latter, only, is given to all other voters. While the regular party candidates appear on the ballot in alphabetical order, the non-partisan names appear in an order that is determined by lot.

Party Machinery — What a political party is has already been described, and we have been constantly hearing about it in our story of how elections are conducted. But we have yet to learn something about how parties are organized and how new parties may be started. This is a subject in which every citizen, young or old, ought to be interested.

Like most other organizations, political parties are managed by committees. First of all there is the ward committee, consisting of two committeemen from each voting precinct, elected by the voters at the primaries. These ward committees look after the local interests of their party, and act as managers whenever there is a close contest in their own wards. Of course, in all matters they are acting under the general direction of those higher in authority.

Over the various ward committees is the city committee, whose membership is secured by having each ward committee elect one member. It is through this central committee that the big party bosses are able to exercise strict control over the ward and division leaders and, through them, over the rank and file of the regular party voters.

In supreme authority, especially in matters that concern the state as a whole, is the state committee, made up of two representatives from each senatorial district, elected at the primaries. Philadelphia furnishes one-sixth of its members, and exercises a good deal more than one-sixth of the influence of the committee, due to the fact that those in control of the parties in Philadelphia are also the state leaders.

It must not be forgotten that these committees, powerful as they are, must be guided or influenced by party sentiment as expressed through party clubs; and they must even keep in touch with what nonpartisan civic associations are thinking and doing.

As a sort of apex to this pyramid of party organization stands the national committee, consisting of one representative from each state and territory, elected by the state delegations at the time of the national nominating convention. This committee manages the presidential campaign and makes all arrangements for the holding of the next convention, four years later.

The convention itself contains twice as many delegates from each state as the state has representatives and senators in Congress. This means that Pennsylvania sends 76 delegates out of a total of over 1,000; and of these 76, Philadelphia elects an even dozen and helps to elect as many more. The last twelve are known as delegates-at-large, and are twice as many as the state has congressmen-at-large and senators.

There are three main things for this convention to do. First, it draws up a party platform, telling what the party believes in and what it will try to do if it is in power for the next four years. Second, it puts in nomination candidates for President and Vice-President. Third, it selects a new national committee for the next four years.

Forming a New Party — Now a word is necessary as to how a new party may be started. Whenever a group of people in a certain locality—let us say Philadelphia—are not satisfied with the policies or with the candidates that have been nominated for certain offices by their own party, and are unwilling to support the policies or the candidates of one of the other parties, they may at once start a party of their own. To do this, at least five of the group must first file an affidavit with the Prothonotary (clerk of the Court of Common Pleas) of the county, stating that they have adopted a certain name for the new party they propose to start—this name to contain no words identical with those already in use by any political party. The next step is to secure signatures to a nomination paper for each candidate which the group proposes to put up for some office. Perhaps it may be only a candidate for one single office; perhaps it may be for every office in the city or county or state. These nomination papers—which look like the nomination petitions we have already heard about—are then filed with the Secretary of State at Harrisburg, together with a certificate from the Prothonotary stating that a new party name has been preempted by this particular group of electors. This completes the process, and a new political party—local, state, or even national in scope has now been started. Usually these new parties are short-lived, but they often accomplish a good deal in a short time.

Why Parties at All? — No democratic nation of any considerable size has ever worked out a scheme for running its government without the aid of political parties. In England and the United States the great majority of the voters ally themselves with one or the other of two great parties or groups of parties. In France and Italy and other European countries there are numerous small political groups, with a constant shifting of alliances between them. But in all democracies political parties have come to stay. In all alike, the parties or groups for the time being out of power are directing a helpful and steadying criticism at the acts and policies: of the party or groups then in power. And in all alike, political parties and party machinery are serving as a coordinating force that ties together all the parts of the government.

The binding force that gives cohesion and power to political organizations, especially in our large cities, is a sort of give-and-take good fellowship that never forgets its supporters, and that is singularly generous in its distribution of offices and other favors. Too often, unfortunately, this sentiment does not rise above the clan spirit, but places the interest of the party or faction above the interest of the community at large. But despite this fact, party groups are useful, even in city government, provided they are based on issues that concern the city itself rather than the state or the nation.

Not only must there be political parties, but there must be party leaders and plenty of active party workers. It ought to be an honor to be a "politician," whether as a leader or as a worker in the ranks; and it will be when the average voter shall have decided, once for all, that party leaders shall lead and party workers shall work unselfishly for the public good, and not selfishly for their own personal ends.

Publication Details

• Title: Citizenship In Philadelphia (1919)
• Author: J.Lynn Barnard, Ph.D. and Jessie C. Evans. A. M.
• Published: 1919
• Copyright: 1919, The John C. Winston Co.
• Publisher: The John C. Winston Co
• Pages: 376
• Illustrations: 112
• Printer: NA
• Binding: Hardcover
• Number of copies printed: NA